Nineteenth-century North America Research Articles

Network, Cryptography, and the Next World to Come: An Everlasting American Techno-millenarianism?

To understand the nexus between networked cryptography and American religiosity, it is essential to embed this inquiry within the broader context of religious imaginaries associated with communication networks in nineteenth-century North America and their evolution into the spiritual landscape of the twentieth century. Throughout United States history, network imaginaries have exerted a substantial influence, engaging in a continuous dialogue with the evolution of religious thought, attributing eschatological expectations to networks, and ascribing them with a profound sense of ultimate purpose and significance. This investigation finds its ultimate context within the early techno-libertarian communities of 1990s California, pivotal in shaping the design, development, and objectives of networked cryptography online, ultimately giving birth to cryptocurrencies and the blockchain protocol.

Hardened water: The remaking of a coastal city

As the rising sea levels of climate change reshape hemispheric space, we are confronting the historical legacies of building cities by the sea. This is especially so on small Prince Edward Island, in the Gulf of St. Lawrence. This essay explores the transformation of the waterfront in the Island’s capital city, Charlottetown, according to the prerogatives of the railway era in the latter nineteenth century. Covering fresh water and filling in salt were fundamental to city-building in nineteenth-century North America, but this essay seeks to highlight the importance of considering the intersection of fresh water and salt in our coastal cities, and the prevalence of the ethos of development in even smaller cities along the shore. This is the story of how a colonial capital initially praised for and defined by its aqueous features gradually lost one particular wetland in its downtown core, in building out the fabric required for the railway era. Human intervention had profound environmental consequences in shaping the city, especially its waterfront, and tied this Island city to larger narratives of urbanization, the politics of transportation and technology, and the regime of fossil fuels. Charlottetown demonstrates why coastal cities must rediscover their water lines, as tidewater, newly animated by climate change, forces us to address the origin, extent, and adaptability of urban infrastructure inherited from the nineteenth century. This essay draws heavily on manuscript and commercial maps.

Marimbo Chimes And The Wizard’s Monster Band: Music In Theatrical Magic Shows

ABSTRACT Magic shows were one of many illusory spectacles popular in nineteenth-century Europe and North America, co-existing with melodrama, pantomime, and magic lantern displays. Yet there is little scholarship in any field documenting the function and significance of music in theatrical conjuring. This essay introduces a new field of research by surveying common practices in historical and modern magic shows. Historical evidence, drawn from broadsides, handbills, programmes, memoirs, reviews, and instructional guides to magic, supports three themes: (1) the relationship between conjuring, musical institutions, and related theatrical entertainments; (2) the phenomenon of magicians doubling as musical performers; and (3) the link between music, magic, and imperialist projects. Filmed performances of magic and empirical studies on illusion, cross-modal perception, and entrainment suggest a continuity of practice between nineteenth-century conjurers and modern magicians. A scene from the 2006 film The Illusionist links modern film-scoring techniques to musical conventions in nineteenth-century stage magic.

Measuring the Harlem Renaissance: The U.S. Census, African American Identity, and Literary FormOn Sympathetic Grounds: Race, Gender, and Affective Geographies in Nineteenth-Century North America

Measuring the Harlem Renaissance: The U.S. Census, African American Identity, and Literary FormOn Sympathetic Grounds: Race, Gender, and Affective Geographies in Nineteenth-Century North America

Peirce, Bierstadt, and the Topographic Imagination in Nineteenth-Century North America

A passage in a letter serves as a starting point for an exploration of the relationship between the philosopher Charles Sanders Peirce and the painter Albert Bierstadt, taking into account their extended friendship, business partnerships, and respective practices of visual representation. The letter contains Peirce’s description of a painting by Bierstadt that he possessed, which sets the stage for an investigation of his systematic philosophy and a comparison of his existential graphs with the oft-noted “effects” of Bierstadt’s grand canvases. The latter, finally, help to unpack the ethical role of visual art within Peirce’s thought.

Historical Geography, GIScience, and Textual Analysis: Landscapes of Time and Place eds. by Charles Travis, Francis Ludlow, and Ferenc Gyuris

Reviewed by: Historical Geography, GIScience, and Textual Analysis: Landscapes of Time and Place eds. by Charles Travis, Francis Ludlow, and Ferenc Gyuris Zef Segal Historical Geography, GIScience, and Textual Analysis: Landscapes of Time and Place. Charles Travis, Francis Ludlow, and Ferenc Gyuris, eds. Cham, Switzerland: Palgrave Macmillan, 2021. Pp. 272. $179.99, hardcover, ISBN 978-3-0303-7568-3. $139.00, paperback, ISBN 978-3-0303-7571-3. $109.00, eBook, ISBN 978-3-0303-7569-0. Historical GIS has been a thriving research field with tremendous potential for the last two decades; nevertheless, it feels very much in its childhood stages. Scholars are still breaking new ground, and methodologies are even now being assessed and debated. Perhaps the biggest problem it faces is also its biggest advantage: its scope and interdisciplinary nature. Due to its breadth, examples always seem too narrow to exemplify the field, either by limiting the historical questions to a specific case study or by stressing the technicalities of GIS rather than the historical interpretation of the results. Historical Geography, GIScience, and Textual Analysis tackles this problem by providing a rich and varied portrayal of historical GIS in the making. The sixteen chapters offer a diverse range of case studies covering different periods and regions, as well as significantly different source materials and disciplinary backgrounds. At first glance we might even ask, for example, what is the connection between the cinematic views of Texas in the 1984 film Places of the Heart (chapter 1) and the forensic investigation of an 1832 mass grave of Irish immigrant railroaders in Pennsylvania (chapter 3)? And the answer is probably: not much. However, as we continue to read through the chapters of the book, we realize that it is much less about particular case studies, as interesting as they might be, and much more about the common questions facing those implementing historical GIS in their work: What data can be relevant for this type of research? How should this data be mined and later [End Page 135] aggregated? And the most important of all, how does one combine the results with a more nuanced hermeneutic interpretation? Although the contributions are short (seventeen pages on average), the contributors manage, surprisingly well, to provide in-depth examples of the implementation of GIS in their respected study, as well as some reflective insights concerning their work. Part I's contributions of the edited collection deal with the mapping of textual source materials. Chapter 1 juxtaposes cinematic, literary, and scientific depictions of Waxahachie, Texas. Chapter 2 outlines an ongoing digital project of mapping Iceland's medieval textual corpus. Chapter 3 combines archival, archeological, and geographic research to uncover the truth behind an 1832 mass grave in Pennsylvania. Chapter 4 uses the Green Book, the Jim Crow–era travel guide, as a form of spatial countermapping of Black resistance. The four contributions in part II deal with the mapping of social practices and mobilities. Chapter 5 uses GIS to evaluate the impact of urban renewal in San Francisco on LGBTQ hangouts on the city's waterfront. Chapter 6 explores the relationship between work and home in 1881 Ontario. This chapter is a notable example of the methodological affordances of a combined use of data mining, GIS, statistical analysis, and an eventual closer reading of the data. Chapter 7 explores political corruptness in nineteenth-century Atlanta by juxtaposing the initial routes of streetcars in the city and the actual travel patterns of the city's inhabitants. Chapter 8 studies diasporic resettlement patterns of Irish migrants in late nineteenth-century North America. The social dimensions of environmental phenomena are considered in part III. Chapter 9 shows how an 1849 farmer's diary can be used as source material for exploring historical meteorology. Chapter 10 examines the effects of water distribution in the Rio Grande on economic patterns in the region. Chapter 11 presents a geographic interpretation of the available environmental resources during the 1066 Battle of Hastings between the English and the Normans. It successfully shows the methodological value of GIScience in cases where little data is at hand. Chapter 12 explores ringfort locations in the Irish Midlands. Part IV considers the mapping of historical landscapes. Chapter...

“To give light where He made all dark”: Educating the Blind about the Natural World and God in Nineteenth-Century North America

Nineteenth-century educators worried that blind children were particularly susceptible to moral apathy, religious decay, and atheism because they could not see the beauty of nature. These educators used instruction in biology, zoology, and natural history to teach blind children about the beauty of the natural world and the breadth of God's creation. Instruction techniques included innovative but expensive apparatuses and tactile models. Despite cost challenges, educators of the blind devoted time and ingenuity to expand the science curriculum, particularly nature study programs, to help their students become successful, productive, and pious citizens equal to their sighted peers. Teaching blind students about nature ensured the blind would not become burdens on society but could be brought into the proper, civilized, religious sphere of the sighted.

Policing the Boundary and Bounding the Police: Fictitious Borders and the Making of Gendarmeries in North America

ABSTRACT This article argues that the mismatch between the legal fictions of the boundaries separating the states of late nineteenth century North America and the reality of local trans-border life helped drive the militarization of borderlands policing. The form this militarization took, in turn, reflected administrative state development; that is, whether they were relatively unitary and centralized, like Canada, or whether they were marked by fragmentation and local autonomy, like Mexico and the US. I use the example of state gendarmeries – mounted, armed policing units combining military and law enforcement functions – to explore this claim.

The Archaeology of Precarious Lives: Chinese Railroad Workers in Nineteenth-Century North America

How can archaeologists, whose research is typically anchored in place-based sites and landscapes, apprehend the scale of mobility and pace of transformation inherent to immigration, industrializati...

“Riel … vivra dans notre histoire”: The Response of French Canadians in the United States to Louis Riel’s Execution

This essay examines the visits of the Métis leader Louis Riel to French-Canadian population centres in the northeastern United States in the mid-1870s. It explores the responses of French-Canadian immigrants to Riel’s execution following the 1885 rebellions he led in the North-West Territories against the authority of the nascent Canadian federal government. French Canadians in New England and New York called for clemency for Riel and organized protest meetings following his hanging. This essay thus sheds light on ethnic and religious transnationalism in the nineteenth century. It highlights what French-Canadian descendants in the US Northeast had to say about Riel and about the perceived place of francophone minorities in Canada and the United States. Their responses to Riel’s execution served to challenge social and political boundaries as well as the limits of citizenship in nineteenth-century North America.

The Fresh and the Salted: Chinese Migrant Fisheries Engagement and Trade in Nineteenth-Century North America

Zooarchaeological identifications of fish taxa at nineteenth-century Chinese migrant sites in North America indicate that Chinese consumers maintained local, regional, and international connections with a number of discrete fisheries to satisfy their desire for both fresh and salted fish products. To date, no archaeological study has addressed the broader complexity of the Chinese fish trade in North America. This paper explores these intricacies by drawing on historical observations of nineteenth-century Chinese fishing operations in North America, zooarchaeological fish data from sites across the American West, and an in-depth case study of archaeologically recovered fish remains from the Market Street Chinatown in San Jose, California. To better understand the fish data from this site, I use indicator group analysis to identify several likely sources of the specimens identified at the site. Overall, the data show that, although Chinese migrants typically consumed fish taxa that resembled those traditionally eaten in nineteenth-century southern China, they sourced their fish from multiple Chinese and Anglo fisheries throughout the American West and China.

Real Native Genius: How an Ex-slave and a White Mormon Became Famous Indians

Angela Pulley Hudson's Real Native Genius narrates the lives and careers of Okah Tubbee and Laah Ceil, “a fascinating antebellum couple” who performed as Indians across nineteenth-century North America (p. 1). Against the backdrop of slavery and colonization, “intertwining the lives and fates of Native, European, and African-descended people,” Hudson employs Tubbee's and Ceil's intersecting biographies to illustrate both the centrality of Indian-ness to antebellum American culture, and its relationship to racial, gender, sexual, class, and religious identities (pp. 22–23). The book explores Indian-ness “as a complex of ideas and practices” in which native and nonnative people engaged (p. 10). Following more than a dozen aliases associated with her subjects, Hudson meticulously reconstructs the biographies of Tubbee and Ceil, both of whom worked hard “to shroud, to disguise, or to alter the circumstances of their lives” and identities (p. 13). Most historians know “either William McCary and Lucy Stanton or Okah Tubbee and Laah Ceil but not both,” illustrating the historical erasure of connections across Mormon, Native, and African American histories (p. 175). Writing into this void, Hudson offers a detailed portrait of Tubbee's early life as Warner McCary, an enslaved child who was owned by his free black half-siblings in Natchez, Mississippi, and began performing fife and flute “to escape the literal and emotional poverty of slavery” (p. 3). Initially described as “negro” or “mulatto,” drawing on knowledge of the native South, McCary soon began performing as Okah Tubbee, “the celebrated Indian Flutist,” as one newspaper called him in 1846 (p. 69). Hudson traces Ceil's early years as a Mormon daughter, Lucile Stanton, followed by the pair's joint ventures: as minor leaders of a religious sect in the West and as Indian performers and healers in the East.

Street Ballads in Nineteenth-century Britain, Ireland, and North America: The Interface between Print and Oral Traditions. Edited by David Atkinson and Steve Roud . Farnham: Ashgate, 2014. 290 pp. ISBN 9781472427410

Street Ballads in Nineteenth-century Britain, Ireland, and North America: The Interface between Print and Oral Traditions. Edited by David Atkinson and Steve Roud . Farnham: Ashgate, 2014. 290 pp. ISBN 9781472427410

Psychoanalytic Stimulus Packages

David Bennett, The Currency of Desire: Libidinal Economy, Psychoanalysis and Sexual Revolution, London, Lawrence and Wishart, 2016, 314pp+vii; £20 paperback'What happens when we start to decode sex-talk as metaphoric moneytalk?' (p2) This is the organising question running through David Bennett's finely-argued, wide-ranging and lively study The Currency of Desire, a history of 'libidinal economy', its thinkers and discontents, from the Enlightenment to the present day. Bennett's reading is capacious, taking in everything from Lawrence to Lyotard, Viennese Actionism to Christina Aguilera, and his pursuit of his subject energetic and expansive, travelling from the 'complex marriages' of the Oneida Community in nineteenth-century North America to the new money - crime - psychoanalysis circuit of Yeltsin's Russia from our own recent past. If the vastness and stretch of Bennett's interests give his text a sometimes baggy formlessness, each chapter comes studded with insights and asides enough to reward any reader's patience. Erudite, engaging, and sometimes drily funny, The Currency of Desire combines political seriousness with an admirably scrupulous regard for what sometimes seems, to us now, the absurdities and delusions of the past. Bennett's aim 'is to denaturalise [...] the language of libidinal economy and reopen it to critique by historicising, rather than parodying, it' (p38).Contemporary consumer society, from the relationships column in the Guardian to dating apps Tinder and Grindr, is awash with money metaphors floating in the discourses of sexuality and sex talk swimming through the language of money. We 'invest' in relationships, see our erotic or cultural 'capital' rise and fall as we work over our personal 'brand' and online identity, our private lives all the while being commodified, measured and monetised by Facebook as our financial lives are subject to strictures for stimulus or austerity. Economic concepts, in Bennett's account, 'have permeated the vocabularies of both popular and scientific discourses on sexual anatomy, psychology, morality and politics for several centuries' (p7) and The Currency of Desire sets itself the task of carrying out 'the resurrection of dead metaphors, or the resuscitation of unconscious ones' (p36) in order that we might estrange and see afresh the libidinal economic terms informing our consumerist lives.Sex and money have, after all, been talked about together for a very long time. They even share cliches, from money making the world go round to the various insinuations about the 'oldest profession'. All sorts of pimps and pamphleteers have seen the financial appeal of desire, while a century's worth of Freudian analysis has searched the money-world for evidence of libidinal drives and dynamics. As the cynical author of The Wandering Whore Continued (1660) put it, 'Mony and cunny are good commodities'.1 Eschewing the twin temptations of 'biologising' money (the orthodox Freudian approach) or 'eroticising' capital (the project of both psychoanalytic dissidents such as Wilhelm Reich as well as neoliberal advertising and marketing gurus), Bennett insists instead that 'neither discourse can ultimately claim to demystify the other, or explain the other historically' (p80). At a certain historical moment 'the discourses of money and sex became inseparable', and it is this interconnectedness, and its consequences, which The Currency of Desire traces. Bennett 'traces the history of the exchange or intercourse between the languages of money and sex, economic and libidinal economy' (pp3-4), not in order for one to 'establish itself as the literal, rather than the metaphoric, voice of history' (p80), but rather so readers can trace how these two mutually-reinforcing discourses have shaped our accounts of selfhood and society together. Bennett's work is thus both psychoanalytic history and a history of psychoanalysis, a work of a discourse analysis and an analysis of discourse mutating and shifting through history. …

The Unpredictable America of William Gwin: Expansion, Secession, and the Unstable Borders of Nineteenth-Century North America

The Unpredictable America of William GwinExpansion, Secession, and the Unstable Borders of Nineteenth-Century North America Rachel St. John (bio) In 1865, while the United States struggled to reconstruct itself, war raged in Mexico between invading French forces supporting Emperor Maximilian and partisans of Benito Juárez’s republican government. The uncertain futures of the United States and Mexico underscored the instability of the boundaries that the two nations had drawn across North America in the preceding decades. While this impermanence was a source of anxiety for officials in Washington, D.C., Mexico City, and Paso del Norte (the city from which the Juárez government operated), for others it was an opportunity. Among those opportunists was a former California senator named William McKendree Gwin. Gwin, a Tennessee native who had amassed wealth in Mississippi and political success in California and Washington, D.C., spent the summer of 1865 in Mexico City, where he worked to secure military backing for a mining colony in northern Mexico. His activities drew the attention of Matías Romero, the Juárez government’s minister to the United States. Writing to U.S. secretary of state William Seward in July 1865, Romero claimed that Gwin was working with French emperor Napoleon III to “take to the frontier of Mexico all the discontented citizens of the United States living in the south, with the design of organizing them there under the protection and with the assistance of France.”1 This plan echoed earlier efforts to colonize Americans in Texas and Sonora, neither of which, from the Mexican perspective, had ended well. Moreover, in the context of the French occupation of Mexico and the U.S. Civil War, it raised warning flags as a threat to the Juárez government and a possible refuge for unrepentant Confederates. Although this scheme sounds harebrained in hindsight, at this moment in which Mexico and the United States were both fragile, it touched on insecurities about the weakness of national identities, boundaries, and loyalties. Sharing Romero’s concern, Seward concluded that Gwin was “disloyal,” his actions “injurious” to the reconstituted Union.2 [End Page 56] When Gwin returned to the United States later that year, federal officials arrested him. To Gwin, however, this scheme was neither treasonous nor far-fetched.3 On the contrary, it was in line with the work he had done throughout his life. As a young man, Gwin had moved from Tennessee to Mississippi—where he had helped distribute land, from which the U.S. government had forcibly removed Choctaws and Chickasaws, to white speculators and settlers (including himself). He had also speculated in land in Texas and advocated for its annexation by the United States. With the discovery of gold in 1848, he relocated to California, where he became one of the state’s first senators. Over his almost decade-long career in the Senate, he promoted settlement and economic development in California, worked to annex additional territory to the United States, and defended the rights of Americans to settle and seize power throughout the western hemisphere.4 While Seward and Romero viewed Gwin’s plan for a colony of Americans within a French-backed Mexican imperial government as a challenge to the sovereignty of the nations they served, for Gwin this scheme was simply a variation on a theme in which he could help Americans disperse across the continent and put its resources to economic use, and become rich and powerful in the process. In the nineteenth-century North America in which Gwin lived and achieved political and economic success, territorial boundaries were impermanent; national loyalties were conditional; and many alternative configurations of land, power, and people seemed possible. From his first speculative ventures in Mississippi through his Mexican scheme and on to the end of his life, Gwin was an archetype of the entrepreneurial state- and nation-builder who viewed the map of North America as malleable and sought to reshape it. Gwin belongs to a historical cast of characters that includes Aaron Burr, who, after serving as U.S. vice president, was tried for treason for scheming to separate the western territories from the Union; Stephen F. Austin, the Texas empresario...

Joseph Krauskopf’s Evolution and Judaism: One Reform Rabbi’s Response to Scepticism and Materialism in Nineteenth-century North America

Joseph Krauskopf’s Evolution and Judaism: One Reform Rabbi’s Response to Scepticism and Materialism in Nineteenth-century North America

David Atkinson and Steve Roud, Street Ballads in Nineteenth-Century Britain, Ireland, and North America: The Interface between Print and Oral Traditions (Farnham and Burlington, VT: Ashgate, 2014). xvi + 290 pp. £70.00.

David Atkinson and Steve Roud, Street Ballads in Nineteenth-Century Britain, Ireland, and North America: The Interface between Print and Oral Traditions (Farnham and Burlington, VT: Ashgate, 2014). xvi + 290 pp. £70.00.

‘We aint “gentlemen” merchants’: the country retailer in Upper Canada

Country stores were universal in Upper Canada, and they are a necessary component of every living history site. Yet systematic explorations of the actual work of such stores in nineteenth-century North America, based on direct primary evidence, are uncommon; and powerful (and often conflicting) stereotypes of them persist, in living history settings and in the historical literature. This article goes beyond such standard images by using evidence from seven country stores. The starting point is that no one bought all his or her goods at a single store; besides local stores, rural families had access to retailers in towns and well-located villages. Competition demonstrates that retail success was not automatic; it involved relationships, decisions and strategies. Merchants did not need to write these down, however. Hence, the argument of the article must sometimes be indirect. What is clear is that selecting and knowing a wide variety of goods, pricing them, hiring and working with clerks, attending to and working with customers, managing credit and securing and making payments, handling goods taken in payment, and integrating non-retail elements (a crucial component of many Upper Canadian rural businesses) all involved judgement, strategy, daily decision-making and hard work.

Enlisting the Family in Missions to Korea

Studies of the role of family in the modern mission movement have greatly expanded our understanding of the multiplicity of dynamics at play in missions work. In particular, the contributions of wives, whether formally appointed as missionaries or not, have been made increasingly visible. The near exclusive definition of family as conjugal unit of married couples and their children, however, has left invisible the contributions of broader family to the work of missions. This paper considers two individuals, John Thomas Underwood and Emma Jane Harpster, and the kinship networks they represent. Though neither were missionaries, each was drawn by family into the work of missions in Korea. Following recent analyses of the importance of broader kinship networks in the development of the middle classes in nineteenth-century Europe and North America, this paper suggests such networks were also of significance in the modern mission movement.

The Clamorgans: One Family’s History of Race in America by Julie Winch (review)

The Clamorgans: One Family's History of Race in America. By Julie Winch. (New York: Hill and Wang, 2011. Pp. 416. Cloth, $35.00.)Reviewed by Brenna O'Rourke HollandWhen French merchant Jacques Glamorgan entered Spanish-controlled St. Louis in 1781, he put down roots and began a family that would be embroiled in his dealings on the borderlands for more than a century. Over the following three and a half decades, Jacques used his ambiguous national identity, international connections, and transitions in territorial ownership to lay claim to massive tracts of land throughout the Illinois Country and Upper Louisiana. While many histories of nineteenthcentury North America engage with the themes of race, family, politics, law, money and the economy, or land and expansion, few historians substantially tackle more than one, let alone all of these issues. Julie Winch's tale of the St. Louis-based Glamorgan family is therefore a feat of extraordinary breadth, organization, and dedication.Winch traces the Glamorgan family from its progenitor, Jacques, and his initial investment in St. Louis and the Upper Louisiana Territory in the 1780s, through his great-grandchildren's legal and personal battles to gain claim to the land in the early twentieth century. Glamorgan's descendants persistently faced the realities of living in a nation whose legal system made those land claims difficult to pursue, while making race an issue of legal contention. The Clamorgans is, therefore, as its subtitle suggests, a of race in America, but perhaps Winch's biggest contribution is that she shows how stories of family, politics, law, money, and land in American history all are fundamentally histories of race as well.She begins her analysis with Jacques's disingenuous methods of investment, including gambling with money and land on the borderlands. Even in times of fiscal hardship for Jacques, the author's analysis resonates with current fiscal concerns. Winch points out that Jacques was too big to fail as he capitalized on the tenuous circumstances of business in the specie-poor economy of early St. Louis (76). Bureaucratic confusion over the transition to U.S. rule that ensued and Jacques's own less-than-honest speculation ultimately resulted in an unfulfilled promise of riches that preoccupied his descendants for over a century after his death. Jacques owned property in both land and people, and bet on both. Taking advantage of the ambiguities of race and gender on the borderlands and starting a family with his former slaves, Jacques upped the ante, complicating a clear path of inheritance.One of Winch's most interesting and compelling findings that illustrates Jacques's adeptness at fraud was the transfer of land deeds to his former slave and lover Ester in an attempt to hide such property from creditors. Winch explains that this transfer was probably why Jacques agreed to free Ester. Ester eventually found out and sued for her land, but Jacques used her race, gender, and her daughter's enslaved status against her. Ester died before receiving any vindication. Ultimately, those land transfers remain at the center of the narrative as Jacques's natural descendants battle through the courts to lay claim to their supposed fortune. Ester and the three other ffeedwomen of African descent with whom Jacques shared his bed-Helene, Susanne, and Julie-are equally important to the story and make The Clamorgans an important piece of historical scholarship on race and gender in America. …