Nile Water Research Articles

Recharge sources and geochemical evolution of groundwater in the Quaternary aquifer at Atfih area, the northeastern Nile Valley, Egypt

This study addresses the topic of recharge sources and evolution of groundwater in the Atfih area situated in the northeastern part of the Nile Valley, Egypt. Inventory of water wells and collection of groundwater and surface water samples have been achieved. Water samples are analyzed for major ions according to the American Society for Testing and Materials and for the environmental isotopes analysis (oxygen-18 and deuterium) by using a Triple Liquid Isotopic Water Analyzer (Los Gatos). The groundwater is available from the Quaternary aquifer formed mainly of graded sand and gravel interbedded with clay lenses. The hydrogeologic, hydrogeochemical and isotopic investigations indicate the hydrodynamic nature of the aquifer, where different flow paths, recharge sources and evolution mechanisms are distinguished. The directions of groundwater flow are from E, W and S directions suggesting the contribution from Nile River, the Eocene aquifer and the Nile basin, respectively. The groundwater altitudes range from 13 m (MSL) to 44 m (MSL). The hydraulic gradient varies between 0.025 and 0.0015. The groundwater is alkaline (pH > 7) and has salinity ranging from fresh to brackish water (TDS between 528 mg/l and 6070 mg/l). The observed wide range in the ionic composition and water types reflects the effect of different environmental and geological conditions through which the water has flowed. The isotopic compositions of groundwater samples vary between −14.13‰ and +23.56 for δD and between - 2.91‰ and +3.10 for δ18O. The isotopic data indicates that the Quaternary aquifer receive recharge from different sources including the Recent Nile water, surplus irrigation water, old Nile water before the construction of Aswan High Dam, surface runoff of local rains and Eocene aquifer. Evaporation, water rock interaction and mixing between different types of waters are the main processes in the groundwater evolution. Major suggestions are presented to develop the aquifer productivity and to mitigate the deterioration of groundwater quality.

ECONOMIC FEASIBILITY OF PRODUCINGBIOFUELS FROM JATROPHA IN EGYPT

Egypt faces a large and chronic energy problem because the available energy is less than demand. The problem is not only in electricity, but in oil and gas reserves limited, especially oil, where the reserve is only about 4.4 billion barrels. Egypt's oil production is 560,000 barrels per day and consumption is about 815,000 bpd. We are importers of oil. They are not offered in any sector without the availability of energy. In addition to the water problem, which has become very important in the light of the continuous population growth and limited Egypt, Egypt's 55.5 billion cubic meters of Nile water will not solve Egypt's energy and water problem in a scientific way. % of Egypt's share of Nile water, to grow trees from jatropha trees to produce biofuels. The study aimed to study the economic feasibility of the production of biofuels from jatropha trees by analyzing the costs and returns that affect the production of biofuels through the use of averages and percentages. Quantitative analysis methods have been used through the regression method and financial and economic valuation criteria such as IRR. The research area of the new valley, where the moth forest, about 270 acres, is planted in about 140 acres of the total area of the forest. Forest operators have met cost items through a case study model that includes investment cost items such as land, buildings, machinery and equipment. It also included variable cost items such as enrichment, labor, irrigation, the cost of periodic maintenance, the energy used and the cost of seedlings. The case study was prepared bythe Egyptian Company for Natural Oils and the Arab Organization for Industrialization (MASA 999), which is biomedically extracted. International prices were also used on the FAO website. The results showed that the value of the internal return was about 21%, which is higher than the cost of the opportunity to invest in the Egyptian banks for the year 2017, which amounted to about 17%. In addition, indirect revenues such as the safe disposal of treated wastewater, the prevention of environmental pollution, the stabilization of oxygen, the provision of an alternative source of clean energy and the creation of new jobs. The study recommended the need to expand the planting of forests with sewage water for biofuel trees and to encourage investment, capacity-building and local expertise in this area, especially commercial biofuel extraction.

Assessment of Water Quality of El-Salam Canal West of Suez Canal, Egypt

During the summer and winter seasons of 2014 and 2015, a total of 14 samples (7 samples in winter and 7 in summer) was collected from 7 sampling points as follow: Damietta branch, El-Serw drain, El-Salam canal after mixing with El-Serw drain, Bahr Hadous drian, El-Salam canal after mixing with Bahr Hadous drain, El-Salam canal at El Assafra Bridge and El-Salam canal before El-Sahara. The aim of this research is to study the extent of water contamination in Elsalam canal west of Suez Canal as a result of mixing drainage water with Nile water. The results showed that the chemical analysis (salinity and alkalinity) of the studied locations of El-Salam canal differs due to the ratio of mixed the drainage water with Nile water and also differs in different seasons ( summer and winter ). Higher values of heavy metal ions (Fe2+, Zn2+, Mn2+, Cu2+, Cd2+ and Pb2+) were noted after the second mixed stage compared with the first stage at Damietta branch, especially in summer season. It is necessary to note that periodically monitor the water of El-Salam Canal is recommended to avoid the risks results on the surrounding agricultural environment.

Determination of Heavy Metals in Fish and Water of White Nile During Watery Diarrhea Outbreak from June to July, 2017, Gezira Aba – Sudan

The objective of this study was to determine the concentrations of some heavy metal in fish (Clarias gariepinus) and water samples collected from White Nile at Gezira Aba. Heavy metals in fish and water samples were analyzed using Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer (AAS) in accordance to standard analytical method. Data obtained were subjected to statistical analysis (ANOVA) to find out the significant difference of heavy metals in water body throughout the sampling period and in each organ of the sampled fish. The obtained results showed the average values Fe, Pb, Co, Cd in water samples were higher than WHO guide line limit for fresh water. The analysis of heavy metal in fish organs indicated that among eight heavy metals tested, Fe showed the highest concentration followed by Fe, Pb, Mn, Cu, Zn, Co, Cd and Cr. Results also showed that accumulation of heavy metals differed in the organs. Gill recorded high level of heavy metals followed by kidney, while liver contain lower level. It was concluded that levels of heavy metal in fish organs showed high concentration of detected heavy metals, while water samples give low heavy metals concentration. This implies that, the fish sample can be used to monitor heavy metals pollution level in the White Nile River. More safe and economic methods for elimination of heavy metals from contaminated waters are needed and continuous assessment of the level of pollution of Nile water and fish with heavy metals is also necessary.

The Nile issue and the Somali-Ethiopian wars (1960s-78)

This article attempts to scrutinize the link between the hydropolitics of the Nile and the Somali– Ethiopian border wars, of which the second was one of the largest inter-state wars in contemporary African history. It examines and seeks to flesh out the role of the Nile waters issue as a geopolitical factor in escalating the Somali– Ethiopian conflict. In doing so, it attempts to fill the lacunae in various serious academic analyses, which have tended to focus exclusively on the military aspects of the wars. It also aims to clear the mist surrounding Cairo’s strategy of direct involvement in the conflicts in the Horn of Africa through alliances with Mogadishu’s irredentist claim over the Ogaden region of Ethiopia. Egypt’s concern, arising from her historic stance that Ethiopia could control the life-giving river upstream and reduce its flow, was among the main factors that engendered Cairo’s determination to support the Somali irredentist claim. The Somali-Ethiopian wars were manifestations of Egypt’s operations to weaken the Ethiopian state so that the latter could not interfere with the flow of the Nile waters. This article insists on the importance of the hydropolitics of the Nile in understanding the conflict in the volatile region of the Horn of Africa in general and the Somali– Ethiopian wars in particular.

Effect of some Additives on the hydrolysis, persistence and the downward Movement of Glyphosate and Fluazifop-butyl Herbicides

The first objective was to determine the effect of additives and water type on the degradation of glyphosate and fluazifop-butyl herbicides. Both glyphosate and fusillade were strongly hydrolysed in hard water more than Nile water and distilled water. Most additives were decreased glyphosate persistence in all types of water. Glyphosate plus glue was more persistent than glyphosate alone and when mixed with the following additives (urea, glycerine, dioleate, monoleate, paraffin and mineral oil), respectively. Fusilade alone was more persistent than its mixture with the additives rape seed oil, mineral oil, paraffin oil, dioleate and monoleate, respectively. The second objective was to deal with the effect of additives soil texture interactions on persistance and leaching of glyphosate and fluazifop-butyl herbicides. Persistence of glyphosate in clay soil was lower than in sandy soil. Most additives increased half life of glyphosate in clay soil, while glyphosate additive mixtures decreased its stability in sandy soil. Fluazifop-butyl was rapidly dissipated in clay soil more than the sandy soil. Whereas most of the used adjuvant decreased fluazifop-butyl half life in each soil. Glyphosate was not detected in the soil leachate of clay and sandy soil column. The majority of glyphosate and fluazifop-butyl amount was located in the top layer of soil column followed by fewer amounts in the successive layers. Whereas glyphosate and fluazifop-butyl could be transferred from the sub- surface to the following layer from sandy soil with some additives (surfactants) to the following layer. Meanwhile fusillade with surfactants was detected in sandy soil column leaching with non significant amount.

Occurrence of Fungi in Drinking Water Sources and Their Treatment by Chlorination and UV-Irradiation

A TOTAL of 54 cfu/ml fungal species were isolated from 9 water samples collected from Nile water, Water Treatment Plant (WTP) and tap water in many governorates in Egypt. The fungal species Aspergillus alutaceus, A. flavus, A. fumigatus, A. niger, A. sulfurous, A. terreus, Penicillium chrysogenum, P. globrum and Trichoderma viride were isolated from water samples. Nile water (S1) was polluted with the highest fungal count and diversity followed by treated tap water in Al Sharqia (S5) Governorate. The physicochemical analysis revealed higher COD and conductivity in Al Sharqia tap water sample than that in untreated Nile water sample which may be due to the old rusted distribution systems or heavy metals contamination. Laboratory scale treatment of tap water in Al Sharqia sample (S5) indicated that single treatment with chlorination was not efficient to eliminate fungal contamination except by using high chlorine concentration with long exposure time. Similarly single UV treatment to drinking water was not effective enough. Combination between UV irradiation followed by chlorination exerted synergistic effect and disinfected water from fungal contamination in very short exposure time and very low chlorine concentration.

Characteristic of groundwater potentialities in West Nile Valley South, Minia Governorate, Egypt

The main aim of the present study is to detect the status of groundwater resources in west Mallawi area which represented one of the new reclamation lands. In order to achieve this aim, the hydrogeological and hydrogeochemical studies are carried out, based on the results of 21 pumping tests and chemical analysis of 29 water samples. Two water-bearing units are detected in the study area, namely, the Eocene fractured limestone aquifer which occupies the east portion of the studied area. The second aquifer consists of friable sediments of sand and gravel and may be related to the late Oligocene–early Miocene age and overlies the limestone rocks in the west, and this aquifer were studied for the first time in this work. Regionally, the groundwater flow in the area under study occurs toward the north and east directions. There is a hydraulic connection between both aquifers through the structural pattern affected the area. The partial recharge of the both aquifers takes place through the upward leakage from deep aquifers and the Nile water. There is a general decrease in the water salinity from west to east direction. The groundwater of both aquifers was evaluated for the different purposes and concluded that, it is considered suitable for different uses.

Nvestigating the Properties of the Vertisols at Kenana III and IV Towards Enhancing Management Practices (Sennar State - Sudan)

A series of studies were initiated in Sudan in the early 1950s for utilization of the Nile Waters [19]. On the basis of these studies the Rosaries Dam was built on the Blue Nile. By the end of 2008 a programme to start the heightening of the dam was started with outlets for canals on both banks. At the same time further agricultural development on two irrigation projects, the Kenana and Rahad II commenced with soil surveys and irrigation design. The Kenana Area lies between the Blue Nile and the White Nile and runs south east to North West from Disa to Managil. Kenana Area is almost flat with predominantly clayey soils [21], [17]. Kenana III lies midway between the Blue Nile and the White Nile south of Sennar-Kosti railway line. Kenana IV area finally lies to the north west of Kenana III area. The soil study area is partly semi-arid and partly arid, and experiences slight rainfall in the order of 350 mm in its northern edge, increasing to some 650 mm at its southern boundary near Jebel Dali. The soil surveys carried in the area were made at semi-detailed level and the key specifications are a field density of 1 observation each 100 ha and map scales of 1:50,000 and 1:100,000. Previously published soil survey information was reviewed and incorporated in these surveys. In these surveys a number of potential agricultural options in terms of adapted cropping patterns, systems of management and two methods of surface and pressure irrigation were considered for development [6]. The most dominant soils are the Vertisols which have high potential for crop production, but some constraints emerge affecting crop performance and decreasing yields. Those limitations are aspects of land degradation, manifested in deterioration of physical and chemical properties. Continuous cropping of Vertisols, through time, leads to compaction and eventually develops hardpan at the subsurface, reducing porosity, intensity of cracking and obliterating water movement. Such adverse effects are indicators of degraded soil physical properties. To minimize the concurrence of those hazards management procedures should adhere to land and crop management systems. Parallel to this approach, the fertility status is likely to decline due to intensive farming of some nutrient-depleting crops, but this nutrient deficiency is correctable through implementing a fertilizer programme. In the study area, some parameters are management-factors determining e.g. flat slope favouring uniform distribution of irrigation water through well designed irrigation and drainage network, and sub-soiling preparing proper seedbed. Those technical inputs if properly used and practiced they are expected to sustain crop production. Keywords: Vertisols, Kenana Area, Irrigated Agriculture; Soil survey; Landsat, Clay plain

Evaluating evaporation rate from high Aswan Dam Reservoir using RS and GIS techniques

Egypt is one of the countries facing challenges due to its limited water resources represented by its fixed share of the Nile water (55.5 BCM) according the 1959 agreement with Sudan. Lake Nasser is a man-made fresh water reservoir and its evaporation losses are an important contributing factor to the lake water budget. Although, no universally recognized method is known for evaporation estimation, reliable evaporation data are necessary for efficient management of the reservoir and the scare water resources. The aim of this research is calculating monthly evaporation rates using Remote Sensing (RS) and GIS techniques. The study applied Surface Energy Balance System (SEBS) method using Terra Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) satellite earth observation data at years 2006 and 2012. Additionally, remote sensing ET product from the MODerate Resolution Imaging Spectrometer (MOD16) at years 2006, 2010 and 2012 were used to determine the monthly spatial distribution evaporation rates at Lake Nasser. The results were processed using ArcGIS software. Atmospheric parameters predicted from Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) model were used also to estimate monthly evaporation rate using Harbeck equation which is typically used by High Aswan Dam Authority (HADA) responsible for the dam managment. The evaporation rates calculated from HADA data are compared with other methods (SEBS, MOD16 and WRF models). The average annual evaporation rate at year 2006 for HADA, SEBS and MOD16ET is 6.93, 6.38 and 6.61 mm/d respectively; the estimated by HADA is slightly higher than SEBS and MOD16 ET estimation. A high correlation was found between SEBS and MOD16 ET (R2 = 0.969 and P < .01), that gives a good indication of the use of only one method (SEBS) to estimate the evaporation, monthly evaporation rate.

Physical-chemical and Bacteriological Evaluation of River Nile Water and Drinking Water in Benha City, Egypt

WATER quality assessment of drinking water has been studied in Benha city, Qalubia Governorate, Egypt between April 2015 to March 2016 to evaluate the quality of different types of water according to physicochemical, chemical and bacteriological aspects. Twenty four samples were collected during the four seasons from different places in Benha City. Two kinds were analyzed; Benha filtered water and raw water of River Nile. The results indicated that the average values of physicochemical, heavy metals, trihalomethanes and bacteriological parameters in Benha filtered water treatment were within Egyptian standard (2007) and the World Health Organization (WHO) of water quality with comparison to raw water. The dominant bacterial isolates in the raw water samples were Escherichia coli and Enterobacter aerogenes; while the filtered water samples were 100% free from pathogenic bacteria and coliforms.

Hydroclimatic conditions and fishing practices at Late Paleolithic Makhadma 4 (Egypt) inferred from stable isotope analysis of otoliths

The late Paleolithic site of Makhadma 4, located along the Nile River in Upper Egypt, yielded an important ichthyofauna characterized by a very high proportion of tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus). We used isotopic analysis (δ18O) of well-preserved otoliths (“ear stones”) of tilapia to reconstruct the former hydrological conditions, as well as the fishing strategies of the site's inhabitants. Otoliths from two modern fish captured in the Nile River near Esna were also examined to test how accurately tilapia otoliths reflect their ambient environment. All otoliths were sequentially micromilled to recover high resolution isotopic profiles along the main growth axis. Comparison of the modern otolith profiles with environmental data shows that tilapia δ18O values record seasonal variations of the modern Nile hydroclimate but that their values are offset. The archaeological otoliths record very large intra-individual cyclical variations in δ18O values, with relatively consistent amplitude, as well as very high seasonal maximum values (up to +8.3‰), compared with the modern otoliths. The hydrological regime of the water body in which the archaeological fish lived was characterized by a reduced Nile water inflow that could not negate the effect of local evaporation during spring. The reconstructed hydrological conditions are in accordance with a new model of Nilotic behavior that assumes the creation of lakes by damming of the Nile as a result of a high eolian activity during hyper-arid periods of the Late Pleistocene. Although large seasonal evaporation may have resulted in a severe seasonal reduction in the lake's volume and extent, the lake was, nevertheless, maintained for several years. Cyclic variations in otolith δ18O values permit reconstruction of the period of the hydrological cycle during which the fish were captured. Fishing of young individuals occurred mostly after the maximum input of inflow water from the Nile, when evaporitic conditions were at their lowest, i.e. during fall.

EFFECT OF IRRIGATION WATER QUALITY ON EMITTER'S CLOGGING PERCENT

Drip irrigation systems have reached to a high level of technology, but still faced a remarkable operational problem named emitter clogging. Emitter clogging can affected distribution uniformity and the system performance, which has direct relationship with water quality. Three types of emitters (pressure compensating, long path and turbo-key) with nominal discharges 4, 6 and 8 L/h, respectively were tested under three types of irrigation water (Nile, Drainage and Fertilized water). Each test was carried out under four levels of operating pressure (75, 100, 125, 150 kPa). Emitter spacing was 50cm and six laterals of 16mm diameter and lateral spacing of 75 cm and 10m long was used for each treatment. Drip irrigation system was constructed in Agricultural Engineering Department; faculty of agriculture; Menoufia University during 2015. The main objective was to evaluate emitter clogging percent and it's changing with operating periods for each treatment. The results showed that turbo key emitter achieved the lowest percent of clogging with Nile water (8.12%) after 181 hours of operating period; at 100 kPa of operating pressure. In case of Drainage water at 100 kPa, the emitter clogging percent was (12.24, 21.33 and 70.75%) for turbo key, long path and pressure compensating, respectively after 181 hours of operating period. With Fertilized water at 100 kPa, the clogging percent was (11.38, 19.12 and 34.50%) for turbo key, long path and pressure compensating, respectively. Increasing the operating pressure led to remove deposits outside the emitter and the clogging percent decreased, as occurred with turbo key emitter. Both of water quality and emitter type play an effective role in maintaining drip irrigation system efficiency for a long time.

Artesian Water Contamination with Heavy Metals at Different Distances at Borg El Arab, Alexandria – Egypt

Twenty four water samples were collected from six artesian wells in Borg El Arab region, Alexandria, from June 2015 to May 2016, and analyzed for the determination of Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu, Pb, Cd, Co, and Ni, The obtained results showed that Nile water contained 0.31-1.23 Fe 0.06-0.65 Mn, 0.08-0.52 Zn, 0.01 -0.16 Cu, (mgL-1), while Pb, Cd, Co, Ni were not detected. The artesian water contained: 0.17-2.81 as Fe, (0.06-0.95) as Mn, (0.0 -0.90) as Zn, (0.0 -0.3) Cu (mgL-1).The concentrations of Co, Pb, Cd, and Ni were nil. All values were below the safe limit of water suitability for irrigation. Artesian water can be used under special management. The higher values of Fe, Mn, Zn Pb, and Cu were found in the soil irrigated with artesian water. Regular monitoring of heavy metals in crops is essential to prevent excessive accumulation of these metals via the food chain. Long-term daily intake of contaminated crops is likely to be a detrimental health hazard for consumers.

Management Scenarios of the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam and Their Impacts under Recent and Future Climates

Close to the border with Sudan, Ethiopia is currently building the largest hydroelectric power plant in Africa with a storage volume corresponding to approximately 1.5 years of the mean discharges of the Blue Nile. This endeavor is controversially debated in the public and the scientific literature. Contributing to this discussion, by shading some light on climate change issues, an eco-hydrological model, equipped with a reservoir module, was applied to investigate downstream hydrological impacts during filling and regular operation, the latter considering climate change projected by an ensemble of 10 global and regional climate models. Our results show that at the earliest after 20 months, the dam could produce hydroelectric power. Full supply level may be reached after four years or not at all, depending on filling policies and assumptions of seepage rates. Under recent hydro-climatic conditions, the dam may produce 13 TWh − a , which is below the envisaged target of 15.7 TWh − a . The ensemble mean suggests slightly increasing hydropower production in the future. Almost independently of the operation rules, the highly variable discharge regime will be significantly altered to a regime with almost equal flows each month. Achieving a win-win situation for all riparian countries requires a high level of cooperation in managing the Eastern Nile water resources.

Removal and Spectrophotometric Determination of Anionic Dye Using a Polymeric Nanocomposite

Removal and spectrophotometric determination of trace amounts of methyl orange (MO) in tap and Nile water using silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) supported over polyurethane foam were successfully carried out. AgNPs and samples of a nanocomposite of polyurethane foam and silver nanoparticles (PUF/AgNPs) were characterized using UV–vis spectroscopy, field‐emission scanning electron microscopy (FE‐SEM), and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR). Several parameters affecting dye removal such as pH, contact time, initial dye concentration were investigated. Sorption isotherms, kinetics, thermodynamics, desorption, and nanocomposite reusability were investigated. Error analysis data showed the high suitability of the Freundlich model and the pseudo‐second‐order kinetic model for better interpretation of the experimental data. The sorbed MO was desorbed and determined spectrophotometrically. Under the optimized conditions, the calibration curve was linear from 50 to 1000 μg/L with a correlation coefficient 0.9987. The recoveries of the dye ranged from 96.43% to 103.65%, indicating the excellent performance of the proposed method for MO determination in real samples.

STATISTICAL ESTIMATION OF PRODUCTION FUNCTIONS AND AGRICULTURAL COSTS AND MEASURES OF PRODUCTIVITY EFFICIENCY OF WATER USERS' ASSOCIATIONS OF DIFFERENT IRRIGATION SYSTEMS IN AL-BEHEIRA GOVERNORATE

STATISTICAL ESTIMATION OF PRODUCTION FUNCTIONS AND AGRICULTURAL COSTS AND MEASURES OF PRODUCTIVITY EFFICIENCY OF WATER USERS' ASSOCIATIONS OF DIFFERENT IRRIGATION SYSTEMS IN AL-BEHEIRA GOVERNORATE

Tolerance and Biosorption of Manganese, Iron and Aluminium by Five Aspergillus Species Isolated from Freshwater

Microorganisms play a significant role in bioremediation of heavy metal contaminated soil and wastewater. The present study has been carried out to understand the tolerance potential of different species of Aspergillus (A. flavus, A. niger, A. nidulans, A. oryzae and A. terreus) which were isolated from the Nile water. The degree of tolerance of fungi was measured by minimum inhibitory concentration in the presence of different concentration of metals (Mn, Fe and Al) and compared to a control sample. Results showed variations in the tolerance level of different isolates of Aspergillus. A. niger and A. oryzae were tolerant while A. nidulans was the most sensitive species. Removal of manganese, iron, and aluminium using powder and viable Aspergillus oryzae biomass was investigated. Metals (Mn, Fe. and Al) removal increased with an increasing dose of biosorbent for the powder and viable biomass within two hours. These results showed that powder and viable Aspergillus oryzae biomass can be used for removal of heavy metals from polluted water.

Groundwater Modeling in Agricultural Watershed under Different Recharge and Discharge Scenarios for Quaternary Aquifer Eastern Nile Delta, Egypt

Different scenarios of recharge and discharge were assessed for sustainable management of groundwater in Quaternary aquifer east of Nile Delta. MODFLOW was utilized to investigate the effect of land use change and damming construction in the upstream of the Nile River on the current and short-term groundwater management strategies. The interpretive transient simulation was performed between 2004 and 2016 after steady-state calibration in 2004, and transient state from 2004 to 2013 with different irrigation recharges associated with land use change in this period. Sensitivity analysis was performed for hydraulic conductivities, recharge, and conductance parameters. The predictive transient simulation was run till 2023 under three scenarios of increasing pumping rates by 15, 30, and 50% for agriculture expansion and specified head reduction of Port Said Canal by 0.2, 0.4, and 0.6 m associated with the reduction of Nile water levels after Grand Ethiopian Residence Dam, GERD operation in 2017. Results from the in- and out-flow budgets showed that groundwater aquifer is stable at the current rate of pumping till 2023. Groundwater heads decreased by 0.2 and 0.42 m in the southern section, and a slight increase in the northern part was noticed for the first and second scenarios, respectively. When additional pumping stress is applied (50% increase), groundwater head dropped by 0.66 m, and the storage is no longer able to maintain the aquifer capacity after 2020 (worst-case scenario).

Adapatation of Sowing Date for Improving Sorghum Yield in Rainfed Areas in Sudan Using AQUACROP Model

Due to the rapid growth in world population, the pressure on water resources to feed the growing population is increasing. The Nile water share of Sudan is almost exploited; and agricultural production by rained water is threatened by the pressure of climate change. It is inevitable that the production per unit water consumed, the water productivity, must be increased to meet this challenge. This research therefore focuses on the benchmarking of physical water productivity in rain fed areas and gaining a better understanding of the temporal and spatial variations and the scope for possible improvement. A review of the available records and sources that provide measurements of crop-water productivity was consulted to assess plausible ranges of water productivity levels for rain fed Sorghum crop and to provide a first explanation for the differences that are found using AQUACROP model. As such this study may be considered as crucial step was to establish a water productivity database for the rain fed sorghum crop in the country. Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench) which is the most important cereal crop in Sudan has been constrained by the detrimental effect of drought which has often caused food shortages. Almost 90% of the total sorghum cropped area is rain-fed, and 60% of that is in drought prone soil conditions. Spatial information on water use, crop production and water productivity will play a vital role for water managers to assess where scarce water resources are wasted and where in a given region the water productivity can be improved. Hence, a methodology has been developed in this study to quantify spatial variation of crop yield, evapotranspiration and water productivity using the AQUACROP model in five stations. The AQUACROP model is used to investigate optimum sowing date that result in maximization of grain yield.Benchmarking of rain fed Sorghum actual and potential grain efficiency in different agro-climate zones was made for the year 1979 to 2013. AQUACROP model was applied at five locations (Gedaref, Damazin, Dalang, El Fashir, and El Obyied) each representing an agro-climate zone. Causes of poor yield performance were investigated and consequently measures needed to improve performance were identified. The study indicates that increase in sorghum yields under historical climate conditions in the different studied stations is possible when early sowing is used and initial rain showers are utilized, yield decrease by 43% when sowing date is delayed from July 15 (the recommended date) to August 1. Stations with high rain fall (Damazin, Gadaref and Dalang) show little variations in inter-annual yields but with a tendency towards high yields, 3536, 3741, 3737 kg/fed for the above stations respectively compared to 2266 and 1086 kg/fed for El Obyied and El Fashir respectively at 15 June. The obtained WUE is lower in the driest regions (El Fashir, and El Obyied) and higher for those of high rain fall. To aid decision makers and crop growers in rain fed areas a set of recommendations for policy making and for future research were identified.