New Zealand Region Research Articles

A review of pasture yields and growth rates in Northland

ABSTRACT Pastoral grazing is the major land use in Northland, New Zealand. This study analysed the distribution and variability of pasture dry matter (DM) yields across four distinct physiographic regions, using published and original unpublished datasets collected from 1958–2021. Dargaville had the highest mean annual pasture yield of 11900 kg DM/ha, Kaitaia 9970 kg DM/ha and Kaikohe and Whangarei at ∼8400 kgDM/ha. Pasture water use (DM yield/mm rainfall) ranged from 10.8 kg DM/mm/ha (Kaikohe) to 16.4 kg DM/mm/ha (Dargaville). Kaitaia showed the largest annual yield variability (>2300 kg DM/ha). The relationship between pasture growth and temperature was quantified to estimate temperature adjusted growth rates for these regions. Whangarei spring growth was low at 3.19 kg DM/°Cd before it declined after 2560°Cd, or ∼7630 kg DM/ha, to 1.85 kg DM/°Cd, due to summer dry conditions. These results suggest pasture production was low compared with other regions of New Zealand. The low production and persistence may be compounded by the lack of readily available supplementary feed during summer dry or winter wet conditions. This increases the risk of overgrazing which reduces plant reserves and total light interception which results in physical damage to pasture plants and lower than potential yields.

Indications and prescribing patterns of antiseizure medications in children in New Zealand.

To determine indications and prescribing patterns for antiseizure medications (ASMs) in children by age, sex, and socioeconomic status. This retrospective study searched the New Zealand database of ASM prescriptions dispensed to individuals aged 18 years or under during 2015 in three regions of New Zealand (48% paediatric population). Medical records were reviewed by a paediatric neurologist for indication. ASMs were grouped into old or new (1993 onwards). In total, 2594 children (0 to 18 years, mean age 11 years 2 months, median 12 years; 51% male) were dispensed 3557 ASMs for seizures (76%), pain (6%), headache (5%), mental health (3%), and movement disorders (2%). After 10 years of age, lamotrigine was more likely and valproate less likely to be prescribed in females than males. No sex difference was observed for valproate prescriptions for non-seizure indications. Topiramate prescriptions increased in adolescent females. Prescriptions for non-seizure indications increased from 7% in children aged 6 years or under to 31% in 16- to 18-year-olds. The proportion of children receiving a new ASM compared to an old ASM was greater in children from higher than lower socioeconomic areas. Our results highlight a need for focused ASM teratogenicity messaging to clinicians prescribing ASMs for non-seizure indications. In addition, to improve equity of epilepsy care, it is critical for health policies to consider socioeconomic factors that impact on ASM prescribing.

Association Between Men’s Exposure to Intimate Partner Violence and Self-reported Health Outcomes in New Zealand

Health implications of intimate partner violence (IPV) against men is relatively underexplored, although substantial evidence has identified associations between IPV and long-term physical health problems for women. Given the gendered differences in IPV exposure patterns, exploration of men's IPV exposure and health outcomes using population-based samples is needed. To assess the association between men's lifetime IPV exposure and self-reported health outcomes. This cross-sectional study analyzed data from the 2019 New Zealand Family Violence Study, which was conducted across 3 regions of New Zealand. The representative sample included ever-partnered men aged 16 years or older. Data analysis was performed between May and September 2022. Lifetime IPV against men by types (physical [severe or any], sexual, psychological, controlling behaviors, and economic abuse), any IPV (at least 1 type), and number of IPV types experienced. The 7 health outcomes were poor general health, recent pain or discomfort, recent use of pain medication, frequent use of pain medication, recent health care consultation, any diagnosed physical health condition, and any diagnosed mental health condition. The sample comprised 1355 ever-partnered men (mean [SD] age, 51.3 [16.9] years), who predominantly identified as heterosexual (96.9%; 95% CI, 95.7%-97.8%). Half of the sample (49.9%) reported experiencing any lifetime IPV, of whom 62.1% reported at least 2 types. Of all sociodemographic subgroups, unemployed men had the greatest prevalence of reporting exposure to any IPV (69.2%) and all IPV types. After adjustment for sociodemographic factors, men's exposure to any lifetime IPV was associated with an increased likelihood of reporting 4 of the 7 assessed health outcomes: poor general health (adjusted odds ratio [AOR], 1.78; 95% CI, 1.34-2.38), recent pain or discomfort (AOR, 1.65; 95% CI, 1.21-2.25), recent use of pain medication (AOR, 1.27; 95% CI, 1.00-1.62), and any diagnosed mental health condition (AOR, 1.66; 95% CI, 1.11-2.49). Specific IPV types were inconsistently associated with poor health outcomes. Any physical IPV exposure was associated with poor general health (AOR, 1.80; 95% CI, 1.33-2.43), recent pain or discomfort (AOR, 2.23; 95% CI, 1.64-3.04), and frequent use of pain medication (AOR, 1.69; 95% CI, 1.08-2.63), which appeared to be associated with exposure to severe physical IPV. Exposure to sexual IPV, controlling behaviors, and economic abuse was not associated with any assessed outcomes after sociodemographic adjustment. Experience of a higher number of IPV types did not show a clear stepwise association with number of health outcomes. Results of this study indicate that exposure to IPV can adversely affect men's health but is not consistently a factor in men's poor health at the population level. These findings do not warrant routine inquiry for IPV against men in clinical settings, although appropriate care is needed if IPV against men is identified.

Comparative performance of a multi‐locus barcoding approach to enhance taxonomic resolution of New Zealand mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae)

AbstractMosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae) pose a serious threat to human health globally and the accurate identification of mosquito species is fundamental to entomological diagnostics and surveillance implementing effective vector control and management. However, cryptic species complexes, incomplete or damaged specimens, and juvenile life stages complicates the task. Molecular characterisation has shown the potential to identify the mosquito species accurately and overcomes the difficulties that morphological diagnosis face. Here, we assessed the effectiveness of a multi‐locus barcoding approach using cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (COI), internal transcribed spacer 1 (ITS1) and internal transcribed spacer 2 (ITS2) regions to identify the New Zealand mosquito species (n = 16) at the highest taxonomic resolution, which can make diagnosis more accurate and efficient. Our results show that most of the New Zealand mosquito species could be distinctly separated from each other as well as from other exotic species using either of these barcoding regions (i.e., COI, ITS1 and ITS2). The assessment of taxonomic discriminatory power of COI, ITS1 and ITS2 barcodes suggests that ITS2 can better distinguish the New Zealand closely‐related species. Two closely‐related endemic species from the Culex pervigilans species complex (Cx. rotoruae and Cx. pervigilans) were difficult to distinguish using COI and ITS1 regions. However, the ITS2 barcode could detect a greater genetic variation among individuals of those two species and demonstrate the potential to resolve the relationships among them to provide better resolution as a complementary to COI. Overall, this study provides a reference DNA barcode database of COI and ITS2 for New Zealand mosquito species, which will aid in their accurate identification at a higher taxonomic resolution and corroborate the traditional morphological approaches to perform better species discrimination among closely‐related species complex. The study also assessed the preliminary genetic diversity of the mosquito species from different regions of New Zealand, which can be used as a baseline for uncovering the environmental and geographical effect on genomic variations among New Zealand mosquito populations in the future.

Encephalitis in adults in the Auckland and Northland regions of New Zealand, 2009 to 2018

We conducted a retrospective study to determine the incidence and frequency of different subtypes of encephalitis in patients aged 15 and older in the Auckland and Northland regions of New Zealand between 2009 and 2018. Residents in Auckland and Northland presenting with encephalitis between 2009 and 2018 were identified from three overlapping databases: positive cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) viral polymerase chain reaction (PCR) tests, CSF neuronal antibody requests, and CSF neuronal antibody tests sent overseas. A diagnosis of autoimmune encephalitis required fulfilment of diagnostic criteria published by Graus and colleagues (2016). One hundred and thirty-six (69, 50.7% female) patients met study inclusion criteria. The median age was 59 (range 15–92). The annual incidence was 1.10 cases per 100,000 person-years. Of these 136 patients, 56 (41.2%) had an infectious aetiology, with varicella zoster (26, 46.4%) and herpes simplex (23, 41.1%) being the most common agents. Autoimmune encephalitis was diagnosed in 32 patients (23.5%). LGI-1 antibody was the most commonly identified neuronal autoantibody (10 patients, 13.2%). Forty-eight patients (35.3%) had encephalitis of unknown cause. In-hospital mortality for infectious encephalitis was 12.5%, autoimmune encephalitis 6.3%, and encephalitis of unknown cause 10.4%. Compared to a previous analysis of encephalitis in adults in Auckland, the incidence of encephalitis and autoimmune encephalitis had increased. The proportion of patients with an unknown cause for encephalitis had decreased.

A Review of Aggregates for Land Transport Infrastructure in New Zealand

Aggregates are an important non-renewable resource and the primary raw material for land transport and building infrastructure. New Zealand as a country has an abundant endowment of rock minerals suitable for aggregate for the construction, maintenance, and recycling of public and private infrastructure. However, due to a deficit in infrastructure planning and development for a number of decades, strong population growth in many areas and much of New Zealand’s public infrastructure is coming to the end of its useful and/or economic life — there is an increasing demand for aggregates in many regions of New Zealand. Some regions of New Zealand have difficulties sourcing appropriate materials locally for infrastructure purposes, and there are increasing sensitivities to the extraction of aggregates from communities and iwi/hapu (tribes) who have experienced and seen the effects of poor industry extraction and environmental practices and the lack of monitoring and regulation of consent conditions. Little appropriate data is currently available either nationally or within regions to sustainably plan, manage, use and reuse/recycle aggregates for various public or private infrastructure and therefore to enable the forecasting of future aggregate demand. This paper develops a better understanding of the supply and demand issues both nationally and within regions with the aim of informing a future aggregate strategy to better manage aggregate resources. The paper reviews New Zealand and international literature, reviews aggregate and land use consent data, and evaluates novel methods of EROAD truck transponder data to evaluate aggregate haul distances. Finally, we provide recommendations on how to better manage aggregate supply and demand in New Zealand.

Understanding Quality of Pinot Noir Wine: Can Modelling and Machine Learning Pave the Way?

Wine research has as its core components the disciplines of sensory analysis, viticulture, and oenology. Wine quality is an important concept for each of these disciplines, as well as for both wine producers and consumers. Any technique that could help producers to understand the nature of wine quality and how consumers perceive it, will help them to design even more effective marketing strategies. However, predicting a wine’s quality presents wine science modelling with a real challenge. We used sample data from Pinot noir wines from different regions of New Zealand to develop a mathematical model that can predict wine quality, and applied dimensional analysis with the Buckingham Pi theorem to determine the mathematical relationship among different chemical and physiochemical compounds. This mathematical model used perceived wine quality indices investigated by wine experts and industry professionals. Afterwards, machine learning algorithms are applied to validate the relevant sensory and chemical concepts. Judgments of wine intrinsic attributes, including overall quality, were made by wine professionals to two sets of 18 Pinot noir wines from New Zealand. This study develops a conceptual and mathematical framework to predict wine quality, and then validated these using a large dataset with machine learning approaches. It is worth noting that the predicted wine quality indices are in good agreement with the wine experts’ perceived quality ratings.

Flexible resources and experiences of racism among a multi-ethnic adolescent population in Aotearoa, New Zealand: an intersectional analysis of health and socioeconomic inequities using survey data

As societies become increasingly diverse, understanding the complex nature of racism for multiple ethnic, social, and economic identities of minority youth is required. Here we explore the experience of racism between and among privileged majority adolescent groups and targeted minority (Indigenous and ethnic) adolescents in New Zealand. Using the concept of structural and embodiment flexible resources, which act as risk and protective factors, we examine the social and health effects on minority youth. In this intersectional analysis, we use self-reported data from the Youth2000 survey series administered in 2001, 2007, 2012, and 2019 to large, representative samples of students from mainstream state and private schools in the Auckland, Tai Tokerau, and Waikato regions of New Zealand. Students were in school years 9-13 and mostly aged 13-17 years. Ethnic or migrant group, income level of country of origin, and migrant generation were used as measures of structural resources and perceived ethnicity as a measure of embodiment resource. Racism and its effects were measured as socioeconomic inequities (household, neighbourhood, and school-level deprivation); interpersonal discrimination (unfair treatment, bullying, and safety); and health inequities (forgone health care, symptoms of depression, and attempted suicide). We used generalised linear models to explore variations in economic, interpersonal, and health outcomes for Indigenous and migrant youth, adjusting for mediating effects of household deprivation and measures of flexible resources (migration generation, income level of country of origin, and perceived ethnicity). We collected data from a total of 20 410 adolescents from the four survey waves between 2001 and 2019. Participants had a median age of 15 years (IQR 14-16). Socioeconomic, interpersonal, and health inequities varied with access to flexible resources among Māori and racialised migrant youth. Māori and racialised migrants from low-income and middle-income countries in particular experienced high levels of socioeconomic inequities. Racialised migrant youth experienced persistent socioeconomic inequities extending over three generations, especially Pasifika migrant adolescents. Minorities perceived as White experienced less discrimination and had more advantages than visibly racialised groups. Regression models showed that embodiment resources, and to a lesser extent structural resources, mediated, but did not eliminate ethnic disparities in socioeconomic status and interpersonal discrimination; these resources did not strongly mediate ethnic disparities in health. Trend analyses indicate consistency in these patterns with ethnicity-based inequities persisting or increasing over time. Indigenous and ethnic minority experiences of racism are heterogeneous. Structural flexible resources (wealth) and, more substantially, embodiment flexible resources (perceived Whiteness) mitigate individual experiences of racism. In multi-ethnic western societies, anti-racist interventions and policies must address both structural deprivation and associated intergenerational mobility and colourism (ie, implicit and explicit bias against non-White youth). Health Research Council of New Zealand.

Upscaling point-scale soil hydraulic properties for application in a catchment model using Bayesian calibration: An application in two agricultural regions of New Zealand

Hydrological modeling for landscape and catchment scale applications requires upscaling of soil hydraulic parameters which are generally only available at point scale. We present a case study where hourly root zone soil water content and drainage observations from nine flat, pastoral sites (Waikato and Canterbury regions in New Zealand) were used to develop an upscaling approach to parameterize the soil water balance module of the TopNet catchment model, based on scaling multi-layer soil profile information from the national soil data base, S-map, to the single-layer soil profile used in TopNet. Using a Bayesian calibration approach, the hydraulic behavioral parameters of TopNet's soil water balance module were identified. Of the eleven calibration parameters considered three were found to be insensitive to data (stress point, unsaturated hydraulic conductivity and infiltration rate); three were correlated and could be determined from specific soil water content observations (wilting point, field capacity and drainable water); and five were correlated and could be determined from combined specific soil water content and drainage observations (drainage rate, saturated hydraulic conductivity profile, effective soil depth, soil water holding capacity and wetting front suction). Based on the eight correlated parameters, upscaling functions were then developed to derive suitable model parameters from S-map-hydro for each site. The validity of the upscaling functions was verified at each site. The approach used in this research can be used to parameterize the TopNet model at other similar locations, and also provides a transferable framework to parameterize other catchment-scale hydrology models where point-scale soil hydraulic data available.

Relative advantage and complexity: Predicting the rate of adoption of agricultural innovations

The adoption of new technologies and practices is fundamental to having the capacity to adapt to climate change and ameliorate resource degradation. Consequently, having the ability to predict the scale and rate of adoption by farmers of agricultural innovations is central to gauging their adaptive capacity. It is also crucial to assessing the likely compliance of farmers with change-seeking incentives and regulations. In this paper we describe a novel approach to predicting rates of adoption with respect to agricultural technologies and practices drawing on a dual-process model of consumer decision-making and a method for describing the complexity of innovations in farm systems. We tested the approach using data collected through a survey of dairy farmers in the Waikato and Waipa regions of New Zealand. In the survey we asked 200 farmers, chosen at random, about their perceptions of the complexity and relative advantage of various agricultural and resource management practices, and collected information as to how long it took them to try, and then adopt, the practices. Our results confirm that the process of forming an intention to try or adopt a technology or practice may take several months for relatively simple technologies and practices, and several years for more complex ones. Importantly, we found that novelty in terms of the originality in the components and architecture of a technology or practice does not necessarily correlate with its complexity in terms of integrating it into farm systems. This means that apparently simple technologies and practices that are promoted to reduce resource degradation can be quite difficult to integrate into farm systems and, as a consequence, the costs of integration may act as a strong deterrent to adopting them. A logical implication of our findings is that a deep understanding of the nature of the integration task is essential to anticipating how long it might take for adoption (or compliance) to occur in agriculture and, therefore, to appreciate limits on the adaptive capacity of farmers. Such an understanding requires an intimate knowledge of the, sometimes diverse, farm systems and sub-systems in which the technology or practice is to be integrated.

Phlyctema vagabunda is the main causal agent of apple bull’s eye rot in New Zealand

Bull’s eye rot is a postharvest storage disease of apples. Until now the cause of this disease in New Zealand was not clear. A survey of 6880 apples from five regions of New Zealand over two seasons was conducted. Neofabraea malicorticis and N. perennans were not found. One hundred and seventy-nine isolates were identified as Phlyctema vagabunda by specific polymerase chain reactions and/or sequencing the β-tubulin gene region followed by phylogenetic analysis. Two isolates were identified as N. kienholzii. Previous records of the presence of N. malicorticis and N. perennans in New Zealand were based on spore morphology and presence in pruning wound cankers. There is overlap in spore morphology for N. malicorticis, N. perennans and P. vagabunda, accounting for misidentifications. Based on our results it is likely that previous records were P. vagabunda, which can also infect pruning wounds.

Factors associated with soils suppressive to black scurf of potato caused by Rhizoctonia solani

Soils in which disease fails to develop despite pathogen presence are considered disease-suppressive. They offer sustainable, effective protection to plants against infection by soil-borne pathogens. Naturally disease-suppressive soils have been reported for diseases of a diverse range of agricultural crops worldwide yet the underlying mechanisms of disease suppression are still not completely understood. Two large greenhouse experiments, conducted during 2017/18 (Year 1) and 2018/19 (Year 2), determined that soils naturally suppressive to stem canker and black scurf of potato (caused by Rhizoctonia solani) are present in vegetable-arable cropping soils of the Auckland and Waikato regions of New Zealand. Soil was pre-treated with heat prior to inoculation with R. solani and compared with untreated and uninoculated controls to ascertain if stem canker and black scurf suppression was ‘general’, or ‘specific’ (i.e. transferable; possibly involving specific microorganisms). Rhizoctonia solani inoculation was also combined with transfer of one part test soil to nine parts of a known disease-conducive soil. Abiotic factors such as soil texture and organic matter content influenced black scurf incidence and severity. Soil microorganisms were also involved in disease suppression since black scurf incidence and severity markedly increased when they were eliminated or reduced by soil heat pre-treatment. Microbial profiling of the soils through sequencing revealed that taxa of geographically close soils of the same type had similar fungal and bacterial community structure and diversity even though they differed in their capacity to suppress black scurf. These results suggest that although the soil microbiome as a whole, was mainly responsible for soil disease suppressiveness, certain bacterial genera or species may play a role in black scurf suppression.

Evidence for Genetic Hybridization between Released and Wild Game Birds: Phylogeography and Genetic Structure of Chukar Partridge, Alectoris chukar, in Turkey

The Chukar Partridge (Alectoris chukar, Galliformes) is one of the most important game birds in its native range, spanning from the Balkans to eastern Asia, and the regions of Europe, North America and New Zealand where it was introduced. Previous studies found two main genetic lineages of the species forming an eastern and a western clade. Chukar Partridges are raised in game farms and released to supplement natural populations for shooting in the USA, Canada, Greece, and Turkey. To explore intraspecific genetic structure, phylogeography, and possible genetic admixture events of A. chukar in Turkey, we genotyped individuals from fourteen wild and five captive populations at two mitochondrial and ten microsatellite DNA loci in. Wild and farmed Chukar Partridge samples were analyzed together to investigate possible influences of intraspecific hybridizations. We found that the farmed chukars, which mainly (85%) cluster into the eastern clade, and wild ones were genetically distinct. The latter could be separated into six management units (MUs), with partridges from Gökçeada Island in the Aegean Sea forming the most divergent population. Intraspecific hybridization was detected between wild and captive populations. This phenomenon causes rampant introgression and homogenization. The phylogeographic analysis revealed admixture among wild populations; nevertheless, this did not impair pointing to Anatolia as likely having a “refugia-within-refugia” structure. We recommend that the genetic structure of Chukar Partridge and its MUs be taken into account when developing the policy of hunting, production, and release to preserve the genetic integrity of this species.

Improving resilience: a longitudinal analysis of land-use policy and planning for earthquakes in Aotearoa New Zealand, 2000–16

Given New Zealand’s susceptibility to a range of natural hazards, reducing exposure is an important step towards strengthening community resilience and reducing potential social, environmental and economic consequences. Land-use planning has long been recognised as a contributor to achieving this goal. Focusing on earthquake hazards, this paper examines the evolution of risk reduction measures in local government land-use planning documents for 3 earthquake-prone regions of New Zealand in 2000 and again in 2016. While some progress has been made in planning for earthquake hazards, overall the planning documents in these regions remain inadequate. As such, resilience from a land-use planning perspective has not significantly improved. This is surprising in the context of major seismic events in New Zealand over the last decade that have caused considerable damage and loss of life. Future anticipated changes to the planning systems in the country provide opportunities for improvements to be included in documentation.

Grape berry size is a key factor in determining New Zealand Pinot noir wine composition

Making high quality but affordable Pinot noir (PN) wine is challenging in most terroirs and New Zealand (NZ)’s situation is no exception. To increase the probability of making highly typical PN wines, producers choose to grow grapes in cool climates on lower fertility soils while adopting labour intensive practices. Stringent yield targets and higher input costs necessarily mean that PN wine cost is high, and profitability lower, in affordable varietal wine ranges.To understand if higher-yielding vines produce wines of lower quality we have undertaken an extensive study of PN in NZ. Since 2018, we established a network of twelve trial sites in three NZ regions to find individual vines that produced acceptable commercial yields (above 2.0 kg per metre of row) and wines of composition comparable to “Icon” labels. Approximately 20 % of 660 grape lots (N = 135) were selected within a narrow juice Total Soluble Solids (TSS) range of 22.0 ± 1.0 °Brix and made into single-vine wines under controlled conditions.Multiple Factor Analysis of the vine, berry, juice and wine parameters from three vintages found grape Berry Weight to be the most effective clustering variable. As the Berry Weight category decreased, there was a systematic increase in the probability of higher berry red colour and total phenolics with a parallel increase in wine phenolics and decreased juice amino acids. The influence of berry weight on wine composition would appear stronger than the individual effects of Vintage, Region, Vineyard or vine Yield. Our observations support the hypothesis that it is possible to produce PN wines that fall within an “Icon” benchmark composition range at yields above 2.5 kg per vine, provided that the Leaf Area:Fruit Weight ratio is above 11 cm2 per g, mean berry weight is below 1.2 g and juice TSS is above 22 °Brix.

Is provenance or phylogeny a better predictor of growth and survival of a soil pathogen in leaf litter?

Exotic plants have the potential to increase pathogen inoculum that can affect native plants. New Zealand’s iconic kauri tree (Agathis australis) is threatened by disease caused by Phytophthora agathidicida, which is most prevalent in fragmented forests that have been invaded by or are adjacent to populations of exotic species. Exotic plants have been introduced intentionally (i.e., plantations and pastures) and unintentionally along the margins of kauri forests, yet it is unclear if invasive species play a role in pathogen spread. To determine the extent to which native and exotic plant litter supports P. agathidicida inoculum, we performed a phylogenetically controlled detached leaf assay. We inoculated 60 native and 44 invasive species’ leaves with three isolates of P. agathidicida collected from two different geographical regions of New Zealand, measured disease symptoms and re-isolated the pathogen from infected leaves. Lesions grew larger and faster on exotic leaves across all three isolates tested. However, pathogen recovery was not necessarily more likely from exotic leaves. In contrast, one of the three isolates grew faster when recovered from native compared with exotic leaves. Phylogeny did not predict disease expression. This data suggests that native and exotic plant litter may be reservoirs for P. agathidicida, but reservoir potential varies among isolates. These results also support key management tools used in New Zealand aimed at reducing pathogen spread by foot traffic in fragmented kauri forests, such as hygiene stations for shoe cleaning at trailheads and boardwalks in sensitive forest areas. Further, these tools may benefit forest management worldwide, as pathogens and exotic, invasive species increase at a global scale.

The associations between mental health and environmental factors in New Zealand: A region-based analytical study

INTRODUCTION: Connections between environmental factors and mental health issues have been postulated in many different countries around the world. Previously undertaken research has shown many possible connections between these fields, especially in relation to air quality and extreme weather events. However, research on this subject is lacking in New Zealand, which is difficult to analyse as an overall nation due to its many micro-climates and regional differences.OBJECTIVES: The aim of this study and subsequent analysis is to explore the associations between environmental factors and poor mental health outcomes in New Zealand by region and predict the number of people with mental health-related illnesses corresponding to the environmental influence.METHODS: Data are collected from various public-available sources, e.g., Stats NZ and Coronial services of New Zealand, which comprised four environmental factors of our interest and two mental health indicators data ranging from 2016 up until 2020. The four environmental factors are air pollution, earthquakes, rainfall and temperature. Two mental health indicators include the number of people seen by District Health Boards (DHBs) for mental health reasons and the statistics on suicide deaths. The initial analysis is carried out on which regions were most affected by the chosen environmental factors. Further analysis using Auto-Regressive Integrated Moving Average(ARIMA) creates a model based on time series of environmental data to generate estimation for the next two years and mental health projected from the ridge regression.RESULTS: In our initial analysis, the environmental data was graphed along with mental health outcomes in regional charts to identify possible associations. Different regions of New Zealand demonstrate quite different relationships between the environmental data and mental health outcomes. The result of later analysis predicts that the suicide rate and DHB mental health visits may increase in Wellington, drop-in Hawke's Bay and slightly increase in Canterbury for the year 2021 and 2022 with different environmental factors considered.CONCLUSION: It is evident that the relationship between environmental and mental health factors is regional and not national due to the many micro-climates that exist around the nation. However, it was observed that not all factors displayed a good relationship between the regions. We conclude that our hypotheses were partially correct, in that increased air pollution was found to correlate to increased mental health-related DHB visits. Rainfall was also highly correlated to some mental health outcomes. Higher levels of rainfall reduced DHB visits and suicide rates in some areas of the country.

Prevalence of interpersonal violence against women and men in New Zealand: results of a cross‐sectional study

ObjectiveTo determine prevalence rates of non‐partner and partner violence (IPV) in men and women from a population‐based study. MethodsWe recruited 2,887 randomly selected respondents (1,464 women and 1,423 men) from three regions of New Zealand between 2017 and 2019. Face‐to‐face interviews using a questionnaire adapted from the WHO multi‐country study on violence against women was used for data collection. ResultsPhysical violence by non‐partners was most commonly experienced by men (39.9% lifetime exposure) compared with 11.9% of women. More women (8.2%) experienced lifetime non‐partner sexual violence compared with men (2.2%). About 29% of men and women reported at least one act of physical‐IPV in their lifetime, and about 12.4% of women and 2.1% of men reported at least one act of lifetime sexual IPV. More women than men reported serious injuries, fear, and physical and mental health impacts following IPV experience. ConclusionsThese findings indicate high prevalence of interpersonal violence exposure in the population, with marked gender differences in the types and impacts of violence reported. Implications for public healthStudy results call for the urgent implementation of violence prevention programs, and funding for both services to rehabilitate people who have perpetrated violence and services to support recovery of those affected.

Climate change and New Zealand’s groundwater resources: A methodology to support adaptation

Study regionHawke’s Bay and Otago regions, North and South Islands, New Zealand (NZ). Study focusEvidence that climate change affects groundwater is emerging, but a complete understanding of the processes and impacts on the resources remains limited in most countries, including NZ. This paper presents a methodology to explore the potential effects of climate change on groundwater for an envelope of future climate scenarios (i.e., low and high greenhouse gas emissions; mid- and end-century). The methodology uses national and sub-national datasets and models and is applied to two case studies (Hawke’s Bay and Otago). Its structure allows for future implementation in other NZ regions. New hydrological insights for the regionResults are provided as projected changes in precipitation minus evapotranspiration, rainfall recharge to groundwater (RR) and water table elevation. General water quantity reductions are projected for Hawke's Bay (e.g., RR reduced by up to −1.5 mm/d), and more limited and variable changes for Otago (e.g., RR varying between +/- 0.4 mm/d).We then present a discussion about furthering the science of climate change effects on groundwater, characterisation of climate change uncertainty and unique effects, and adaptation in the NZ context. We anticipate that our results, despite limitations and uncertainty, can enable adaptation actions without delay. We recommend integrated and adaptive approaches, including action effectiveness monitoring and community engagement, to develop resilience to climate change threats.

The effect of soil type, fruit load and shaded area on ‘Hass’ avocado (Persea americana Mill.) water use and crop coefficients

‘Hass’ avocado tree water use was quantified within orchards located in the three main avocado growing regions of New Zealand, from 2016 to 2019. The three regions, the Bay of Plenty, the Whangarei District and the Aupouri Peninsula in the Far North District, differ in climate and soil type (allophanic, clay, and sandy soils, respectively). At each site, local meteorological conditions were monitored, avocado tree water use was quantified using heat-pulse sap flow measurement, total leaf area was obtained periodically, fruit load was recorded at harvest, and shaded area was measured in mid-summer. Reference evapotranspiration (ETo) calculated by the FAO-56 Penman-Montieth equation was highest in January at 3.8 mm (Whangarei) to 4.3 mm (Bay of Plenty) and lowest in June at 0.7 mm (Bay of Plenty) to 0.8 mm (Whangarei and Far North). The three sites had similar patterns of tree water use relative to ETo, regardless of the differences in soil type, and tree water use was highest in January at 2.7 mm d−1 and lowest in June at 1.2–1.4 mm d−1. Across the three sites, individual tree water use was related to variation in tree spacing and leaf area per tree, but on an orchard area basis was influenced more by fruit load, resulting in variation in estimated crop coefficients (Kc) among individual trees and seasons at all sites. Average monthly Kc was similar across all sites with a value of 0.60–0.65 in mid-summer, as all three orchards were considered mature with fully grown canopies and > 75% orchard shaded area. However, tree water use also increased from light to heavy fruit load. Therefore, when irrigation is applied to avocado, Kc values should be adjusted for variation in fruit load, with a range from 0.50 to 0.85 in mid-summer.