New Areas Of Expertise Research Articles

A special relationship? American influences on English legal education, c. 1870–1965

This paper describes and analyses the influence of American legal education on English legal scholars, and the vitality or otherwise of the Anglo-American legal community circa 1870–1965. Part one describes the Anglo-American legal community, its leading lights and its leading ideas, and the transatlantic effort to create and establish modern law schools and legal science during c. 1870–1914. Part two examines the divergences that characterised the relationship between American and English legal education and thought, c. 1914–1965 divergences that were so great that some commentators have concluded that the Anglo-American legal community was in terminal decline by 1930. Part three problematizes the supposed decline of the Anglo-American legal community through a consideration of the continuities and convergences that also pervade American and English legal education and thought, c. 1914–1965. During this period, significant transatlantic networks of legal scholars, aided by scholars in other countries and continents, subjected the classical legal orthodoxy to an unprecedented onslaught, and in the process constituted new legal subjects, new areas of expertise, and broadened legal education and scholarship; while other such networks counterattacked, defended and restated the legal orthodoxy. Part four draws on an indicative survey of English legal scholars who studied in the US during c. 1870–1965 to reflect on the mechanisms by which England's would-be jurists studied and taught in America, and the significant, complex and elusive influence of America. In problematizing the influence of the US on England, the analysis of this material is augmented by data derived from interviews with leading English law teachers and scholars undertaken from the 1980's to the present. The final section of the paper (Part five) sketches some conclusions about the influence of American legal education and thought on English legal education and scholarship, and its larger significance. By melding archival and secondary sources with oral history, and bringing to bear both a macro and micro historical approach to the influence of US law schools and jurists on their British counterparts, and the important role of transatlantic networks of legal scholars, it is hoped that the essay will contribute to an understanding of the specifics of American influence and also to the intellectual history of modern legal education.

Closing the evidence, research, and practice loop: Examples of knowledge transfer and exchange from the field of aphasia

Background: Knowledge transfer and exchange (KTE) is an emerging area of expertise with potential to foster productive relationships between researchers and users of research in the field of aphasia. Effective KTE can increase the use of research evidence in policy and practice decisions and enable researchers to identify research questions that are relevant to potential users of research. In Canada it is now frequently mandatory for research applications to include a KTE plan. Aims: To provide a background to KTE by reviewing theoretical models and basic principles and elements of a KTE plan, as well as by highlighting potential contributions to the field of clinical aphasiology. Main contribution: Introduction of a new area of expertise to our field with examples of practical applications. Conclusions: The application of KTE principles and methods has positive implications for clinical and policy decision making in the field of clinical aphasiology. The authors thank staff at the Aphasia Institute, and all those involved in the think tank, conference, and community of practice referred to in the article. Thanks also to Ada Mok for administrative support.

Scholarship in Emergency Medicine in an Environment of Increasing Clinical Demand: Proceedings from the 2007 Association of American Medical Colleges Annual Meeting

Academic emergency medicine can benefit by broadening the way in which scholarship is defined to include teaching, integration of knowledge, application of knowledge to practical clinical problems and as discovery of new knowledge. A broad view of scholarship will help foster innovation and may lead to new areas of expertise. The creation of a scholarly environment in emergency medicine faces the continued challenge of an increasing clinical demand. The solution to this dilemma will likely require a mix of clinical staff physicians and academic faculty who are appreciated, nurtured and rewarded in different ways, for the unique contributions they make to the overall success of the academic program.

Teaching Courses on Managing Diversity: Using Learning Contracts to Address Challenges and Model Behavior

Managing for diversity is widely recognized as an increasingly important component of public administration curricula. Students must be prepared to function effectively in a workplace characterized by greater diversity among coworkers and the publics served. Despite the recognized need for courses on managing diversity, many faculty feel ill-prepared to determine course content and teach such courses. This article provides practical and normative justifications for the use of learning contracts in diversity courses. From a practical standpoint, learning contracts are an effective means of meeting the needs of diverse students and increasing course relevance while reducing the burden on the instructor to completely retool and develop a new area of expertise. The author asserts that learning contracts should be used because they are an appropriate instructional strategy for the adult learners who comprise public affairs programs and they provide a means for the instructor to model a behavior that demonstrates valuing diversity as an asset. The author presents a step-by-step guide to learning contracts tailored for use in diversity courses, provides examples of learning contract provisions developed by students in courses on managing diversity, and shares feedback received from students about the process.

Overview: Offshore Drilling and Completions (April 2005)

The basics of offshore drilling are the same as those of onshore drilling. Actually, the pioneers of offshore drilling just transported their equipment to an offshore platform. Very quickly, however, specific offshore drilling units were built (many being mobile units). There were two main consequences. First, with high drilling-unit costs, more emphasis has been put on reducing well-construction time, either by minimizing nonproductive time or by developing new technologies. Drilling units specifically built to remove as many operations as possible from the critical path exist, but a lot of effort has also been put into procedure optimization. Second, beyond the issues related to safety or logistics, several new challenges have appeared that are specific to offshore operations. These new challenges were particularly evident when drilling with a floating unit, for which new areas of expertise were developed, such as rig positioning or riser and subsea-blowout-preventer management. In recent years, the latest technical developments were, to a large extent, dedicated to deep offshore, where the issues have become even more challenging. New pressure issues appeared, related to different pressure gradients in the water and in the sediments, as well as temperature issues with mud, cement, well architecture, and the completion string. Eventually, some of the offshore-drilling solutions appear in land drilling, such as in remote harsh-environment arctic conditions. The evolution appears to be closing the loop; however, this is another story. Additional Offshore Drilling and Completions Technical Papers Available at the SPE eLibrary: www.spe.org SPE 91239 - Challenges in Implementing UBO Technology Available at the OTC Library: www.otcnet.org OTC 16624 - Managed-Pressure Drilling Fills a Key Void in the Evolution of Offshore-Drilling Technology OTC 16228 - Na Kika Completions Overview: Challenges and Accomplishments OTC 16621 - Managed-Pressure-Drilling Applications Index

`Two-Way Windows': Clinicians as Medical Managers

This paper uses the metaphor of the `two-way window' to understand the aspirations and activities of clinical directors (doctors with management responsibilities). Clinical directors work simultaneously with sets of ideas from both clinical practice and from management, therefore, their role (as `two-way windows') allows the possibility to create a new area of expertise — medical-management. To explore how `two-way windows' are being constituted, clinician managers in three medical organizations were interviewed. Three narratives were constructed from their accounts. The first narrative outlines the theories-in-use of clinical directors, the second and third consist of the strategizing of clinical directors as they seek to maintain their primary focus on clinical work whilst, at the same time, developing their management expertise and influence. The paper concludes that clinical directors can relatively easily occupy the `two-way' space opened up by the mediation of medicine and management. Only a lack of financial management expertise renders their new organizational positioning vulnerable. All public bureaucracies now involve complex mediation between professionals and managers; hence, `two-way windows' will become increasingly significant in organizational development. These `two-way' roles privilege professional over managerial expertise as it is assumed that the appropriate professional training is of paramount importance. Unique professional/managerial discourses are being created in public-sector organizations. This paper provides a basis for understanding the development of such discourses.

Technical Knowledge in American Culture: Science, Technology and Medicine since the Early 1800s ed. by Hamilton Cravens, et al

TECHNOLOGY AND CULTURE Book Reviews 965 ect (www.stanford.edu/group/itsp) and author of The Closed World: Computers and the Politics ofDiscourse in Cold War America (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1996). Technical Knowledge in American Culture: Science, Technology and Medi­ cine since the Early 1800s. Edited by Hamilton Cravens, Alan I. Mar­ cus, and David M. Katzman. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1996. Pp. viii+264; notes, index. $24.95 (paper). The essays in this volume were gathered to test the idea that a broad range of what one might call “expert” activities occurring over two centuries in the United States can be shown to have evolved on parallel courses. In my view the volume does not achieve its goal, but most of the ten essays merit attention for their individual accom­ plishments. In general they take fresh approaches to their subjects and offer effective arguments. Historians oftechnology may want to look at three essays in partic­ ular. Judith Spraul-Schmidt explores the creation of the Ohio Me­ chanic’s Institute in antebellum Cincinnati and suggests that in con­ cept and in practice it functioned not only to diffuse knowledge (as we might expect from the history ofsuch institutions elsewhere) but also to promote standards of behavior and social expectations (which she calls “civility”) in a burgeoning urban area. Edwin T. Layton offers a thoughtful study of James Emerson, a self-taught 19th-century hydraulic engineer of considerable accomplishment, who championed “a craft-based style of invention, which involved improving upon the work of others.” Layton identifies Emerson as a prominent example of the rearguard effort to protect the auton­ omy of the engineer while the profession was being rapidly sub­ sumed into a corporate framework. Robert B. Fairbanks contributes to the volume an illuminating chronology of the creation ofairports for the Dallas-FortWorth region, deftly weaving together the forces of rapid technological change, growing air traffic, and government action. He demonstrates how a single regional airport became the accepted solution to air travel issues in the region in spite of a long tradition of rivalry between the two Texas cities. These essays, and the others that range from the history ofchemis­ try to the history of social science, are in the editors’ view held to­ gether by a common focus on the changing nature of technical knowledge (by which they mean virtually any type of special exper­ tise). The editors argue that the United States passed from a period early in its history when most technical knowledge was accessible to almost any intelligent citizen who wanted it, through a period of increased professionalization in which technical knowledge became arcane and often controlled by groups of experts, to the mid-20th century when expert knowledge came under attack and was not 966 Book Reviews TECHNOLOGY AND CULTURE trusted by the general public. In explaining their approach the edi­ tors expend considerable energy attacking the works of Thomas Kuhn and Leo Marx who, for reasons not clear to me (since the editors point out that Kuhn and Marx have had few imitators), they regard as having had a disastrous effect on the practice ofAmerican history in recent years. It is difficult to see how the editors’ grand scheme can be applied over nearly two centuries of history, no matter how well chosen the examples in this volume. New areas of expertise have been created, arrogated by experts, and imploded by various forces throughout the history of modern industrial societies. Moreover, it seems to be in the very nature of societies with democratic tendencies to live in tension between the knowledge elites who are called on to perform special tasks and those who oppose the power accumulated in the process. The ambiguities of this tension are well illustrated in Alan I. Mar­ cus’s final essay dealing with the DES beef controversy of the 1970s. In a debate over the health risks of eating beef from cattle fed syn­ thetic estrogen to make them grow faster, it was difficult for the pub­ lic to decide what expert information was reliable and in what forum the debate should be held. Marcus notes that the New York Times proved to be an effective...

Technology and Creativity by Subrata Dasgupta

966 Book Reviews TECHNOLOGY AND CULTURE trusted by the general public. In explaining their approach the edi­ tors expend considerable energy attacking the works of Thomas Kuhn and Leo Marx who, for reasons not clear to me (since the editors point out that Kuhn and Marx have had few imitators), they regard as having had a disastrous effect on the practice ofAmerican history in recent years. It is difficult to see how the editors’ grand scheme can be applied over nearly two centuries of history, no matter how well chosen the examples in this volume. New areas of expertise have been created, arrogated by experts, and imploded by various forces throughout the history of modern industrial societies. Moreover, it seems to be in the very nature of societies with democratic tendencies to live in tension between the knowledge elites who are called on to perform special tasks and those who oppose the power accumulated in the process. The ambiguities of this tension are well illustrated in Alan I. Mar­ cus’s final essay dealing with the DES beef controversy of the 1970s. In a debate over the health risks of eating beef from cattle fed syn­ thetic estrogen to make them grow faster, it was difficult for the pub­ lic to decide what expert information was reliable and in what forum the debate should be held. Marcus notes that the New York Times proved to be an effective way for experts to get their arguments be­ fore the public, presumably because journalism required that their scientific concepts be presented in lay terms. By virtue of its stimulating essays this volume is recommended to the readers of Technology and Culture. Darwin H. Stapleton Dr. Stapleton is the director of the Rockefeller Archive Center in North Tar­ rytown, New York. Technology and Creativity. By Subrata Dasgupta. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1996. Pp. xvii+233; figures, notes, bibliography, index. $25.00 (cloth). Subrata Dasgupta, professor ofcomputer science and engineering at the University of Southwestern Louisiana, has set out to explore the elements of a systematic and empirically tested “general cogni­ tive theory of technological creativity” (p. 186). His are tentative steps, and this book presents a lot of raw material that underpins this search, often by explication of the ideas of other authors rather than by directly presenting a comprehensive theory. His first chap­ ters deal with definitions of technology, technological “problems,” and the role of the technologist as an intellectual. He then shifts to a discussion of the interplay between invention and design. Then, TECHNOLOGY AND CULTURE Book Reviews 967 for the first time employing historical case studies, he examines the process of defining and testing hypotheses, developing new ap­ proaches, and evolving new artifactual forms. Finally, in what is the richest chapter, Dasgupta sets out to define the nature of technologi­ cal knowledge. Dasgupta draws on a disparate set ofcase studies: the development of superalloys for gas-turbine blades, the convex-hull algorithm, the Britannia Bridge, the Newcomen engine, and ENIAC. In each in­ stance he recounts the developmental process undertaken by the primary characters as a means of reconstructing the articulation and testing of hypotheses and then the development of breakthrough, creative approaches. All of this is his way of testing his own “Knowl­ edge-Level Hypothesis on Ideation” (p. 102). By this Dasgupta means that the creative solution to a technological problem is the output of a cognitive process where the sought-after technological goal is the input. The thrust here is to highlight the “minds of indi­ vidual cognitive agents and not . . . some collective historical con­ sciousness” (p. 149). When it comes to the nature of technological knowledge, Das­ gupta devises an approach inspired by philosopher Michael Polanyi ’s conception of “operational principles.” Much of the chapter is spent in refuting the reductionist “technology as applied science” perspective by illustrating the development of technological opera­ tional principles through design and invention, experimentation, prior experience, visualization, and the abstraction of preexisting scientific principles. The value of this material lies in the elaboration of categories oftechnical knowledge and the discussion ofprocesses by which new knowledge is generated. Dasgupta is not the first to tackle these issues, of...

Subspecialization: Commercialism or Professionalism?

Otolaryngologyhas come a long way in the 35 years that I have been associated with it. When I chose this specialty I was counseled by many of my respected teachers to avoid what they considered to be a "second rate" specialty. This has certainly changed, in large part because of the aggressive efforts of the American Board of Otolaryngology. The Board's demand for excellence in training, the elimination of marginal training programs, and the support of the expansion of otolaryngology into major new areas of expertise has been heroic and monumental. We face significant challenges that focus on the practice of medicine, the cost of delivering medical care, and the need to provide high quality care to all of our citizens. This challenge demands that we aggressively and honestly consider changes that may be painful to us all. I do not believe that there can be any argument that

Fingers, Flexors and Flaps: Impressions of a Hand Unit Social Worker

This paper examines the first six months the author spent as social worker in the Hand Unit, Sydney Hospital. She describes her introduction to the Unit, how she set about learning a completely new area of expertise and offers some case examples. She discovers that because the hand is so crucial to our self perception, damage to it cannot be taken lightly. Further, hand injuries can often mask much deeper emotional injuries that must be treated. The social work role in the Hand Unit is as diverse as it is important.

Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation

Because patients with major disabilities usually are initially seen with a variety of problems that touch on many aspects of several different medical and psychosocial specialties and, most recently, the specialty of neurocybernetics, physical medicine and rehabilitation is a multidisciplinary practice that crosses traditional specialty and departmental lines. The practice of physiatrics thus requires a broad knowledge base and must be concerned with all aspects of the treatment of the disabled patient in cooperation with a closely knit team of specialists and medical care professionals. As the knowledge base has been expanded by the transfer of productive research into clinical practice, it has been broadened to include new areas of expertise. Despite pessimism and nihilism in the past about therapeutic intervention in persons with CNS damage, as neuropsychologic testing and interpretation have become more expert, it has become evident that recovery of function after cortical injury occurs with retraining. 1