Neurological Aspects Research Articles

The Heart-Brain Relationship :Cardio-Cerebral Axis

Cardiovascular and cerebral systems are integral components of the human body, each performing vital functions to ensure optimal physiological functioning. Recent advancements in medical research have shed light on the intricate interplay between the heart and the brain, revealing a complex web of interactions that go beyond traditional perspectives. Cardio-cerebral interactions refer to the dynamic and complex relationship between the cardiovascular and central nervous systems. The intricate interplay between the heart and the brain plays a pivotal role in maintaining homeostasis and ensuring optimal functioning of the entire organism. The autonomic nervous system, comprising the sympathetic and parasympathetic branches, plays a pivotal role in coordinating cardiovascular and cerebral activities. Sympathetic activation stimulates the release of norepinephrine, increasing heart rate and cardiac output. This response is closely linked to changes in cerebral blood flow, influencing cognitive functions such as attention and memory.The sympathetic and parasympathetic branches of the ANS play a crucial role in regulating heart rate, blood pressure, and cardiac output. Additionally, Neurotransmitters and hormones released by the cardiovascular and nervous systems further contribute to the intricate interplay.The interruption of blood flow to the brain not only results in acute neuronal injury but also triggers secondary mechanisms that may impact the heart, creating a cycle of cardio-cerebral dysfunction. Conversely, neurological disorders can influence cardiac function. Conditions such as autonomic dysregulation, epilepsy, and certain neurodegenerative diseases can impact the autonomic control of the heart, leading to arrhythmias, sudden cardiac death, and other cardiovascular complications.This essay aims to explore the multifaceted relationship between the cardiovascular and cerebral systems, emphasizing the bidirectional communication, shared regulatory mechanisms, and implications for overall health. The discussion delves into neuro-cardiology and brain science, offering insights into the underlying physiological processes and potential clinical applications. As research progresses, further insights into these mechanisms will undoubtedly pave the way for innovative therapeutic strategies that address both cardiovascular and neurological aspects of human health.Adopting a heart-healthy lifestyle, encompassing regular exercise, a balanced diet, and stress management, emerges as a key preventive strategy. These interventions not only promote cardiovascular health but also positively influence neuroplasticity and cognitive function.

Imaging and Genetic Tools for the Investigation of the Endocannabinoid System in the CNS.

As central nervous system (CNS)-related disorders present an increasing cause of global morbidity, mortality, and high pressure on our healthcare system, there is an urgent need for new insights and treatment options. The endocannabinoid system (ECS) is a critical network of endogenous compounds, receptors, and enzymes that contribute to CNS development and regulation. Given its multifaceted involvement in neurobiology and its significance in various CNS disorders, the ECS as a whole is considered a promising therapeutic target. Despite significant advances in our understanding of the ECS's role in the CNS, its complex architecture and extensive crosstalk with other biological systems present challenges for research and clinical advancements. To bridge these knowledge gaps and unlock the full therapeutic potential of ECS interventions in CNS-related disorders, a plethora of molecular-genetic tools have been developed in recent years. Here, we review some of the most impactful tools for investigating the neurological aspects of the ECS. We first provide a brief introduction to the ECS components, including cannabinoid receptors, endocannabinoids, and metabolic enzymes, emphasizing their complexity. This is followed by an exploration of cutting-edge imaging tools and genetic models aimed at elucidating the roles of these principal ECS components. Special emphasis is placed on their relevance in the context of CNS and its associated disorders.

Inflammatory Cytokines in Rheumatoid Arthritis: Diagnostic Challenges, Pathogenic Mechanisms and their Role in Depression and Management.

Depression being a common comorbidity of rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is found to be responsible for the reduction in the lifespan of the sufferer along with the compromised quality of life. The study quoted below highlights the pathogenic pathways, the frequency of RA along with its impact on patients, thus, raising awareness about the concerned topic. It is found that the chances and frequency of developing depression are 2-3 times higher in patients with RA in comparison to the general population. For such studies, self-reported questionnaires along with proper screening of inclusion and exclusion criteria have been employed which helped in a better comparative study of the topic. As per a report from a meta-analysis, 16.8% of patients with RA have been observed to develop severe depression. According to recent research in the related field, the hypothesis of the role of immune-mediated processes and their role in brain networks and inflammation has been found to be engaged in the progression and pathophysiology of depression in patients with RA. Autoimmune mechanisms and cytokines are found to play an essential role in coordination for initiating and sustaining the disorder. Involvement of IL-1, IL-6 and TNF-α has been studied and analysed widely. A number of studies have shown a connection between depression and RA-related physical impairment, fatigue, and increased pain. Higher mortality, reduced treatment compliance, and more comorbidities effects increased suicide risk. It is also found that depression along with RA leads to hospitalizations, which in turn increase the cost of care for the patient. Hence, it could be stated that the study of depression in RA can be an important marker for the progression of RA and its prognosis. The latest treatment strategies for RA include management of symptoms and early disorder treatment The current review aims to investigate and bring the links between RA and its symptoms into the limelight, including the psycho-social, physiological, and neurological aspects along with their molecular mechanism, for a better discernment of the topic for the readers.

Autoimmune Axonal Neuropathies.

This article reviews autoimmune axonal neuropathies, their characteristic clinical features, disease and antibody associations, appropriate ancillary testing, treatment, and prognosis. In 2021, the American College of Rheumatology and the Vasculitis Foundation released new summary guidelines for the treatment of antineutrophil cytoplasmic autoantibody-associated vasculitides. In addition, novel autoantibodies have been recently identified; they are often paraneoplastic and associated with axonal neuropathies. Recognition of autoimmune axonal neuropathies is important because of the potential for effective treatment to either reverse deficits or slow the progression of disease. It is necessary to properly assess for associations with other systemic disorders (eg, systemic vasculitis, connective tissue disease, neoplasm) so that adequate treatment for both neurologic and non-neurologic aspects of the disease can be initiated.

Immunological and Neurological Changes of COVID-19 in the Elderly

Objectives: To investigate the immunological and neurological changes of COVID-19 in the elderly. Design: A review study. Participants: People over 60 years old with neurological disorders were included in this study. Outcome measures: Review of immunological and neurological aspects of COVID-19 in the elderly. Results: The novel coronavirus, an acute respiratory syndrome caused by coronavirus 2, has caused an epidemic of the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) that has infected millions and killed many people worldwide. Moreover, studies showed that mortality is high in the elderly, especially those with comorbidities. Studies have indicated that biological changes in the immune system are a major contributor to the spread of various diseases, especially infectious diseases in the elderly. Therefore, all data and immunological outcomes should be disaggregated and analyzed by age to better understand the heterogeneity between disease incidence and aging. Conclusions: Indeed, understanding the pathogenesis of novel coronavirus disease (i.e., COVID-19) and subsequent vaccine development requires prospective studies on the impact of a novel coronavirus, especially on its long-term effects on aging populations in each country.

Neurological Properties to Circumvent AI’s Error Reduction Impasse

Our paper proposes significant changes to AI technology. We believe this is necessary because current implementations have stagnated at average error rates of approximately 8%. Implementers hope that further improvements will lower error rates to 5% by 2025. This would require 1028 floating-point operations, which is not possible with today’s algorithms and computer technology. Even errors of 5% are excessive for many practical applications. The current AI implementations have ignominious errors. Near bankruptcy of a prominent real estate corporation, and the obligatory resignation of an elected government official resulted from AI errors. The causation errors were ludicrous and unlikely performed by humans. Applications of AI are therefore limited to those for which errors are nugatory. In contrast, the human brain’s capabilities and efficiency are astonishing. In significant contrast to current AI models, the human brain is impressive in terms of its relatively small size (adult average 79 in3), weight (approximately 4#), and power consumption (nominally 15W). We feel that this implies that AI technology needs to adopt excluded neurological properties. The current AI neuron model is an overly simplified linear model, which was proposed about 70 years ago. We propose emulating the neurological neuron’s nonlinear capabilities. The versatility of the improved AI model would be many orders of magnitude beyond that of the currently implemented linear neuron models. Also, the proposed neurological properties are of neural plasticity. Specifically, we describe the neurological associative learning aspect of neuroplasticity, partitioning associative plasticity into “inter-association” (neural network structure), and “intra-association” (neuron functioning).

Growth Hormone Action in Somatostatin Neurons Regulates Anxiety and Fear Memory.

Dysfunctions in growth hormone (GH) secretion increase the prevalence of anxiety and other neuropsychiatric diseases. GH receptor (GHR) signaling in the amygdala has been associated with fear memory, a key feature of posttraumatic stress disorder. However, it is currently unknown which neuronal population is targeted by GH action to influence the development of neuropsychiatric diseases. Here, we showed that approximately 60% of somatostatin (SST)-expressing neurons in the extended amygdala are directly responsive to GH. GHR ablation in SST-expressing cells (SSTΔGHR mice) caused no alterations in energy or glucose metabolism. Notably, SSTΔGHR male mice exhibited increased anxiety-like behavior in the light-dark box and elevated plus maze tests, whereas SSTΔGHR females showed no changes in anxiety. Using auditory Pavlovian fear conditioning, both male and female SSTΔGHR mice exhibited a significant reduction in fear memory. Conversely, GHR ablation in SST neurons did not affect memory in the novel object recognition test. Gene expression was analyzed in a micro punch comprising the central nucleus of the amygdala (CEA) and basolateral (BLA) complex. GHR ablation in SST neurons caused sex-dependent changes in the expression of factors involved in synaptic plasticity and function. In conclusion, GHR expression in SST neurons is necessary to regulate anxiety in males, but not female mice. GHR ablation in SST neurons also decreases fear memory and affects gene expression in the amygdala, although marked sex differences were observed. Our findings identified for the first time a neurochemically-defined neuronal population responsible for mediating the effects of GH on behavioral aspects associated with neuropsychiatric diseases.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Hormone action in the brain regulates different neurological aspects, affecting the predisposition to neuropsychiatric disorders, like depression, anxiety, and posttraumatic stress disorder. Growth hormone (GH) receptor is widely expressed in the brain, but the exact function of neuronal GH action is not fully understood. Here, we showed that mice lacking the GH receptor in a group of neurons that express the neuropeptide somatostatin exhibit increased anxiety. However, this effect is only observed in male mice. In contrast, the absence of the GH receptor in somatostatin-expressing neurons decreases fear memory, a key feature of posttraumatic stress disorder, in males and females. Thus, our study identified a specific group of neurons in which GH acts to affect the predisposition to neuropsychiatric diseases.

Neurological side effects and drug interactions of antiviral compounds against SARS-CoV-2.

The COVID-19 pandemic, caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus type 2 (SARS-CoV-2), rapidly spread across the globe. Tremendous efforts have been mobilized to create effective antiviral treatment options to reduce the burden of the disease. This article summarizes the available knowledge about the antiviral drugs against SARS-CoV-2 from a neurologist's perspective. We summarize neurological aspects of antiviral compounds against SARS-CoV-2 with full, conditional, or previous marketing authorization by the European Medicines Agency (EMA). Nirmatrelvir/ritonavir targets the SARS-CoV-2 3c-like protease using combinatorial chemistry. Nirmatrelvir/ritonavir levels are affected by medications metabolized by or inducing CYP3A4, including those used in neurological diseases. Dysgeusia with a bitter or metallic taste is a common side effect of nirmatrelvir/ritonavir. Molnupiravir is a nucleotide analog developed to inhibit the replication of viruses. No clinically significant interactions with other drugs have been identified, and no specific considerations for people with neurological comorbidity are required. In the meantime, inconsistent results from clinical trials regarding efficacy have led to the withdrawal of marketing authorization by the EMA. Remdesivir is a viral RNA polymerase inhibitor and interferes with the production of viral RNA. The most common side effect in patients with COVID-19 is nausea. Remdesivir is a substrate for CYP3A4. Neurological side effects and drug interactions must be considered for antiviral compounds against SARS-CoV-2. Further studies are required to better evaluate their efficacy and adverse events in patients with concomitant neurological diseases. Moreover, evidence from real-world studies will complement the current knowledge.

Precision Medicine Approaches for Psychosis Treatment

Precision Medicine Approaches for Psychosis Treatment

Genetic Primary Microcephalies: When Centrosome Dysfunction Dictates Brain and Body Size.

Primary microcephalies (PMs) are defects in brain growth that are detectable at or before birth and are responsible for neurodevelopmental disorders. Most are caused by biallelic or, more rarely, dominant mutations in one of the likely hundreds of genes encoding PM proteins, i.e., ubiquitous centrosome or microtubule-associated proteins required for the division of neural progenitor cells in the embryonic brain. Here, we provide an overview of the different types of PMs, i.e., isolated PMs with or without malformations of cortical development and PMs associated with short stature (microcephalic dwarfism) or sensorineural disorders. We present an overview of the genetic, developmental, neurological, and cognitive aspects characterizing the most representative PMs. The analysis of phenotypic similarities and differences among patients has led scientists to elucidate the roles of these PM proteins in humans. Phenotypic similarities indicate possible redundant functions of a few of these proteins, such as ASPM and WDR62, which play roles only in determining brain size and structure. However, the protein pericentrin (PCNT) is equally required for determining brain and body size. Other PM proteins perform both functions, albeit to different degrees. Finally, by comparing phenotypes, we considered the interrelationships among these proteins.

Neuroendocrinology of the vase tunicate, Ciona intestinalis: consideration of the practical applications for the control of this invasive species

The vase tunicate, Ciona intestinalis (Linnaeus, 1767), is a social but non-colonial ascidian that is implicated in biofouling of aquatic structures and destruction of the shellfish industry through competition for planktonic nutrients and substrate settling habitats. The sequencing of the C. intestinalis genome has provided insight into the phylogenetic origins of this species, indicating that this lineage and its allies represent a sister taxon to the chordates. Although the practical use of this genomic information at controlling this invasive species is equivocal, a number of new studies on the neurological and neuroendocrine aspects of C. intestinalis have suggested new molecular targets that may be exploited for practical applications on the control of C. intestinalis to protect and enhance the shellfish industry from this invasive species. As a result, we have developed a novel behavioural assay for C. intestinalis, which can be employed to investigate novel agents that inhibit growth and development in this species.

Navigating psychological and neurobiological etiology with treatment advances of autism-spectrum disorder

ABSTRACT Background: Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a complicated neurodevelopmental illness that affects social interaction, communication, and behaviour. It is characterised by a wide range of symptoms and difficulties. Methods: Various articles searched from Pubmed central and other search engines for articles related to therapeutic intervention. Results: Intense study and clinical attention have been focused on figuring out the causes of autism and the best treatment plans. Conclusion: The present level of knowledge about the psychological and neurological aspects influencing the onset of autism, as well as the cutting-edge strategies and therapeutic interventions available for people on the spectrum, are thoroughly reviewed in this article

Meta-model of Human Recognition-behavioral Adaptation System

Scientific modeling is a syllogistic system of definitive premise, sound inference and consistent explanation to understand, define, quantify, visualize or simulate feature of the target. Single-model is defined to an informative representation for identifying a property of a target object/phenomenon, and meta-model integrates the relevant single-models to explain phenomenological realities. Human recognition-behavioral adaptation is an information-metabolism system to maintain homeostasis of human-self, and that has been investigated in neurological, psychiatric and psychological aspects. I analyzed human recognition-behavioral adaptation-system via scientific modeling. Neurological meta-model of human recognition-behavioral adaptation system was synthesized as complex-network of the functional neuronal modules, and the meta-model was integrated to Mentality-model in the psychiatric aspect, and to Personality-model in the psychological aspect. The integrated meta-models successfully explained phenomenological realities in the aspects. From the above, I comprehended that the meta-model of human recognition-behavioral adaptation-system has been developed to Biopsychosocial model integrating the biological, psychological and socio-environmental factors.

Myelomeningocele a congenital disease in Chiapas

Introduction: Neural tube defects are congenital defects of the central nervous system, the result of inadequate closure in some area of the neural tube, such as Spina Bifida, Anencephaly or Myelomeningocele, which are a group of conditions that occur during the embryological period of the human being. preventable and greatly affect the population. In Latin America and Mexico they are among the main causes of infant morbidity and mortality. Material and Methods: Analysis of data series of newborns with NTD in Tuxtla Gutiérrez Chiapas, Mexico from 2021-2023 generated from the data and evidence collected at the Dr. Rafael Pascacio Gamboa Regional Hospital and with information from the Tube Defects Epidemiological Surveillance System Neural and Craniofacial (SINAVE/DGE/Salud/2020.). 4 cases with NTD were included, specifically Myelomeningocele who were born and reside in the State. The annual rates of cases with NTD were exposed to identify possible factors that affect or increase said affections with the purpose of preventing said defects or, in that case, ensuring optimal secondary and tertiary prevention for the life of the affected individuals. Results: In the period studied, which was 2021-2023, the NTD with the highest incidence was MMC with 4 cases generated with diseases associated with hydrocephalus and microcephaly, of which only 10% of the cases consumed folic acid in a timely manner during the first trimester. of pregnancy. 100% of the cases are low-income and do not have higher education, as well as popular insurance. 90% attended 6 prenatal consultations or less. Conclusions: NTDs are one of the most frequent problems in newborns, they require study, treatment and permanent surveillance, they can be treated with therapies or go as far as immobilization of the patient's upper and lower limbs, and even death. They represent with great force a morbidity and mortality in childhood that affects the individuals who suffer from them, these conditions are very difficult to bear in the economic, neurological, behavioral, social, emotional, psychological and physical aspect of the people who suffer from it and suffer as much as the affected individuals as well as their families, friends, society, and the health system. Especially because it is preventable, and the information on how to avoid it is of vital use in family planning and to provide more data on this group of diseases where there are more and more new data, methods and techniques on what they are and how to avoid them, cope with them with the purpose of reducing its incidence in the Mexican and general population around the world. Keywords: Mielomeningocele; Neural Tube Defects, Spina Bifida, Tuxtla.

Time for Brain Medicine.

Unprecedented knowledge of the brain is inevitably contributing to the convergence of neurology and psychiatry. However, clinical training continues to follow a divergent approach established in the 19th century. An etiological approach will continue to shift more psychiatric patients to the care of neurologists who are untrained in psychiatric management. At the same time, this new era of diagnostic biomarkers and neuroscience-based precision treatments requires skills not readily available to those trained in psychiatry. The challenges in training the next generation of doctors include establishing competence involving aspects of the whole brain, fostering the subspecialized expertise needed to remain current, and developing programs that are feasible in duration and practical in implementation. A new 4-year residency training program proposed in this article could replace existing residency programs. The program includes 2 years of common and urgent training in various aspects of neurology and psychiatry followed by 2 years of elective subspecialty tracks. The concept is similar to internal medicine residencies and fellowships. No changes to existing departmental structures are necessary. In concert with the emerging biological approach to the brain, "brain medicine" is proposed as a new name to denote this practice in the simplest terms: a focus on all aspects of the brain.

Disordered testosterone transport in mice lacking the ganglioside GM2/GD2 synthase gene.

Genetic disruption of glycosyltransferases has provided clear information on the roles of their reaction products in the body. Our group has studied the function of glycosphingolipids by genetic engineering of glycosyltransferases in cell culture and in mice, which has demonstrated both expected and unexpected results. Among these findings, aspermatogenesis in ganglioside GM2/GD2 synthase knockout mice was one of the most surprising and intriguing results. There were no sperms in testis, and multinuclear giant cells were detected instead of spermatids. Although serum levels of testosterone in the male mice were extremely low, testosterone accumulated in the interstitial tissues, including Leydig cells, and seemed not to be transferred into the seminiferous tubules or vascular cavity from Leydig cells. This was considered to be the cause of aspermatogenesis and low serum levels of testosterone. Patients with a mutant GM2/GD2 synthase gene (SPG26) showed similar clinical signs, not only in terms of the neurological aspects, but also in the male reproductive system. The mechanisms for testosterone transport by gangliosides are discussed here based on our own results and reports from other laboratories.

Neurological Aspect of Ethics and Integrity: A Fundamental Compound Element of Law and Tax Compliance

This article examines the ethics and integrity approach to modelling the law and tax compliance process and investigates different factors that influence legal and governance systems in society. It explores the foundations of human decision-making and behaviours, or how to overcome the undesirable deficiencies in legal and governance systems. The approach of this article is carefully designed to briefly demonstrate how ethics and integrity in the law and tax compliance could lead to effective legal and governance systems. Therefore, ethics and integrity can be thought of as the infinite member of all legal rules and governance systems. Hence, it is, necessarily, in respect of societal conduct and obedience to the law. I conceive that the law and tax compliance does not stand alone. The extension of the law and tax compliance is ethics and integrity, or the extended part of moral conduct in society. Therefore, this article builds on existing knowledge by approaching the principle of ethics and integrity in the law and tax compliance as a duty of life, which is an obligation that ensures the compound elements of societal needs are fulfilled through virtue and accountability. Keywords: Cognition, Ethics, Integrity, Virtue, Tax Law, Decision Making, Human Behaviour

Neurological Manifestations of Hyperosmolar Hyperglycemic State: A Case Report and A Review of the Literature

Hyperosmolar hyperglycemic state (HHS), a life-threatening complication of diabetes mellitus, may initially manifest with a broad spectrum of neurological symptoms. These include encephalopathy, coma, chorea-hemiballismus and epileptic activity. Focal motor seizures are among the most common manifestations whilst aphasia has rarely been described so far. Based on a recent experience from our hospital, we herein report a rare case of a patient with nonketotic hyperglycemia-induced global aphasia, followed by focal motor seizures and attempt a comprehensive review of the literature with regards to the various neurological syndromes through which, undiagnosed diabetes and HHS may present. Neurological aspects of HHS are not so well-documented and are certainly under-represented in the literature.

Brain‐X: A new interdisciplinary journal for advancing neuroscience research

Despite significant advancements in brain research, the intricacies of the brain remain a mystery. The Human Brain Project (HBP) is an international research initiative modeled1-3 after the Human Genome Project (HGP), launched in both the United States and Europe,4, 5 that aims to unravel the complex structure and function of the human brain. HBP takes an interdisciplinary approach, incorporating fields such as biology, medicine, informatics, chemistry, materials, and physics. Such an approach is necessary for furthering our understanding of the brain and advancing neuroscience as a field. However, there is currently no professional journal that focuses specifically on interdisciplinary approaches to brain and neuroscience research. To fill this gap, we are proud to announce the launch of Brain-X. The “X” in the name represents the intersection of brain and neuroscience with a strong emphasis on interdisciplinary research. This international publication will showcase the latest discoveries and technological breakthroughs, providing novel insights into all aspects of brain, neuroscience, and neurology. Brain-X is dedicated to promoting interdisciplinarity and welcomes contributions from diverse fields. In particular, the journal strongly encourages studies that utilize mathematics, physics, chemistry, engineering, materials science, or information science to tackle issues in brain and neuroscience research across various disciplines. As a peer-reviewed and open-access journal, Brain-X partners with Wiley to enhance the visibility of interdisciplinary research in this field. The journal publishes a range of article types, including original research articles, data articles, methods articles, reviews, perspectives, research letters, commentaries, and correspondences. Brain-X will comprehensively cover a broad range of topics, including but not limited to aging and brain, brain-computer interface, brain injury and rehabilitation, brain-inspired computing and artificial intelligence (AI), brain-inspired 3D printing, brain rhythm and disease, brain-gut axis, cellular and molecular neuroscience, cerebral organoids, chemical neuroscience, clinical neurology, computational neuroscience, crosstalk between brain and other organs, nanoparticles for brain drug delivery, and nerve regeneration materials. The editorial board of Brain-X comprises influential scientists from around the world who enthusiastically encourage contributions from researchers. The journal guarantees a rapid review process with fair and prompt decisions. Upon acceptance, high-quality support from the editorial team ensures that the manuscript reaches its full potential in brain and neuroscience research. Brain-X aims to serve as a platform for students, scientists, and clinicians to share their discoveries and perspectives on brain, neuroscience, and neurology. The journal is committed to providing valuable and helpful information to the community in a timely and innovative manner. Kunlin Jin: Writing – original draft; Writing – review & editing. The author declares no conflicts of interest.

Differential Cortical Oscillatory Patterns in Amputees With and Without Phantom Limb Pain.

Phantom limb pain (PLP) as neuropathic pain affects the life of amputees. It is believed an efficient PLP treatment should consider the underlying neurological mechanisms. Hereby, we investigated brain activity in PLP and its relationships to the psychological and cognitive dimensions of chronic pain. We investigate differences in resting brain activities between amputees with and without pain. We hypothesize significant differences in the motor cortex and parietal cortex activity that are related to pain perception. Also, we hypothesize two groups have significant differences in cognitive and psychological components. Behavioral assessment (psychological status, life satisfaction, and pain level) and EEG signals of 19 amputees (12 without pain and 7 with pain) were recorded. Data were statistically compared between the two groups. Also, the association between behavioral and neurophysiological data was computed. The results showed a significant decrease in the pain group for the beta and gamma waves, as well as, for the theta and delta waves in the posterior temporal on both sides, during the eye-open condition. The eyes-closed condition showed that the delta waves were decreased on the right side of the cortex. Also, data showed a significant difference in the correlation of pain features with brain waves between the two groups. Significant differences were mostly observed in regions related to pain perception rather than the motor cortex. This can be due to the learned strategies to deal with pain and the degree of pain. Results showed maladaptive cognitive processes had a relationship with brain wave activities. According to the result of brain wave activities, it seems that cognitive factors have a role in the experience of PLP rather than neuroplasticity through amputation. Differences found in the parietal and temporal regions of phantom limb pain's (PLP's) suggests cognition's role in the persistence of PLP.Decreased delta power at the posterior temporal cortex in PLP's could be the focus of treatments.Increased activity of the parietal cortex could be helpful in the treatment of PLP's. PLP is an annoying neurologic pain. A wide range of treatments have focused on this type of pain but couldn't be effective. Recently, researchers suggest BCI-based treatments for better treatment. For this type of treatment, we should know the neurological aspect of PLP. In most studies to investigate or treatment of neurological aspects of PLP, researchers induced pain experimentally or studied acute phantom limb pain. We believed for a better understanding of PLP, should investigate it in a natural and stabilized position. Therefore we studied brain activities in amputees with and without PLP in a resting state to find out differences. Trends in this field express the alpha band differences in the motor cortex. On the contrary, our results showed the most significant difference in high-frequency bandpasses such as beta and gamma. Also, in our study, it seems the parietal and temporal cortex that are related to pain perception is the more relevant to PLP. This study showed a psycho-cognitive aspect of pain such as pain exaggeration has a relation with PLP's brain wave activities. So, we can suggest rather than neuroplasticity through amputation, cognitive factors have a role in the experience of PLP.