Neurokinin-1 Receptor Immunoreactivity Research Articles

Central and peripheral mechanisms underlying respiratory deficits in a mouse model of accelerated senescence.

Aging invariably decreases sensory and motor stimuli and affects several neuronal systems and their connectivity to key brain regions, including those involved in breathing. Nevertheless, further investigation is needed to fully comprehend the link between senescence and respiratory function. Here, we investigate whether a mouse model of accelerated senescence could develop central and peripheral respiratory abnormalities. Adult male Senescence Accelerated Mouse Prone 8 (SAMP8) and the control SAMR1 mice (10months old) were used. Ventilatory parameters were assessed by whole-body plethysmography, and measurements of respiratory input impedance were performed. SAMP8 mice exhibited a reduction in the density of neurokinin-1 receptor immunoreactivity in the entire ventral respiratory column. Physiological experiments showed that SAMP8 mice exhibited a decreased tachypneic response to hypoxia (FiO2 = 0.08; 10min) or hypercapnia (FiCO2 = 0.07; 10min). Additionally, the ventilatory response to hypercapnia increased further due to higher tidal volume. Measurements of respiratory mechanics in SAMP8 mice showed decreased static compliance (Cstat), inspiratory capacity (IC), resistance (Rn), and elastance (H) at different ages (3, 6, and 10months old). SAMP8 mice also have a decrease in contractile response to methacholine compared to SAMR1. In conclusion, our findings indicate that SAMP8 mice display a loss of the NK1-expressing neurons in the respiratory brainstem centers, along with impairments in both central and peripheral respiratory mechanisms. These observations suggest a potential impact on breathing in a senescence animal model.

Peripheral and central neuroplasticity in a mouse model of endometriosis.

Chronic pelvic pain (CPP) is the most debilitating symptom of gynaecological disorders such as endometriosis. However, it remains unclear how sensory neurons from pelvic organs affected by endometriosis, such as the female reproductive tract, detect and transmit nociceptive events and how these signals are processed within the central nervous system (CNS) Using a previously characterised mouse model of endometriosis we investigated whether the increased pain sensitivity occurring in endometriosis could be attributed to i) changes in mechanosensory properties of sensory afferents innervating the reproductive tract, ii) alterations in sensory input from reproductive organs to the spinal cord, or iii) neuroinflammation and sensitisation of spinal neural circuits. Mechanosensitivity of vagina-innervating primary afferents was examined using an ex vivo single-unit extracellular recording preparation. Nociceptive signalling from the vagina to the spinal cord was quantified by phosphorylated MAP kinase ERK1/2 immunoreactivity. Immunohistochemistry was used to determine glial and neuronal circuit alterations within the spinal cord. We found that sensory afferents innervating the rostral, but not caudal portions of the mouse vagina, developed mechanical hypersensitivity in endometriosis. Nociceptive signalling from the vagina to the spinal cord was significantly enhanced in mice with endometriosis. Moreover, mice with endometriosis developed microgliosis, astrogliosis and enhanced substance P neurokinin-1 receptor immunoreactivity within the spinal cord, suggesting the development of neuroinflammation and sensitisation of spinal circuitry in endometriosis. These results demonstrate endometriosis-induced neuroplasticity occurring at both peripheral and central sites of sensory afferent pathways. These findings may help to explain the altered sensitivity to pain in endometriosis and provide a novel platform for targeted pain-relief treatments for this debilitating disorder.

Respiratory disturbances in a mouse model of Parkinson's disease.

What is the central question of this study? Clinical reports have described and suggested central and peripheral respiratory abnormalities in Parkinson's disease (PD) patients; however, these reports have never addressed the occurrence of these abnormalities in an animal model. What is the main finding and its importance? A mouse model of PD has reduced neurokinin-1 receptor immunoreactivity in the pre-Bӧtzinger complex and Phox2b-expressing neurons in the retrotrapezoid nucleus. The PD mouse has impairments of respiratory frequency and the hypercapnic ventilatory response. Lung collagen deposition and ribcage stiffness appear in PD mice. Parkinson's disease (PD) is a neurodegenerative motor disorder characterized by dopaminergic deficits in the brain. Parkinson's disease patients may experience shortness of breath, dyspnoea, breathing difficulties and pneumonia, which can be linked as a cause of morbidity and mortality of those patients. The aim of the present study was to clarify whether a mouse model of PD could develop central brainstem and lung respiratory abnormalities. Adult male C57BL/6 mice received bilateral injections of 6-hydroxydopamine (10μgμl-1 ; 0.5μl) or vehicle into the striatum. Ventilatory parameters were assessed in the 40days after induction of PD, by whole-body plethysmography. In addition, measurements of respiratory input impedance (closed and opened thorax) were performed. 6-Hydroxydopamine reduced the number of tyrosine hydroxylase neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta, the density of neurokinin-1 receptor immunoreactivity in the pre-Bӧtzinger complex and the number of Phox2b neurons in the retrotrapezoid nucleus. Physiological experiments revealed a reduction in resting respiratory frequency in PD animals, owing to an increase in expiratory time and a blunted hypercapnic ventilatory response. Measurements of respiratory input impedance showed that only PD animals with the thorax preserved had increased viscance, indicating that the ribcage could be stiff in this animal model of PD. Consistent with stiffened ribcage mechanics, abnormal collagen deposits in alveolar septa and airways were observed in PD animals. Our data showed that our mouse model of PD presented with neurodegeneration in respiratory brainstem centres and disruption of lung mechanical properties, suggesting that both central and peripheral deficiencies contribute to PD-related respiratory pathologies.

Lethal avian influenza A (H5N1) virus replicates in pontomedullary chemosensitive neurons and depresses hypercapnic ventilatory response in mice.

The highly pathogenic H5N1 (HK483) viral infection causes a depressed hypercapnic ventilatory response (dHCVR, 20%↓) at 2 days postinfection (dpi) and death at 7 dpi in mice, but the relevant mechanisms are not fully understood. Glomus cells in the carotid body and catecholaminergic neurons in locus coeruleus (LC), neurokinin 1 receptor (NK1R)-expressing neurons in the retrotrapezoid nucleus (RTN), and serotonergic neurons in the raphe are chemosensitive and responsible for HCVR. We asked whether the dHCVR became worse over the infection period with viral replication in these cells/neurons. Mice intranasally inoculated with saline or the HK483 virus were exposed to hypercapnia for 5 min at 0, 2, 4, or 6 dpi, followed by immunohistochemistry to determine the expression of nucleoprotein of H5N1 influenza A (NP) alone and coupled with 1) tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) in the carotid body and LC, 2) NK1R in the RTN, and 3) tryptophan hydroxylase (TPH) in the raphe. HK483 viral infection blunted HCVR by ∼20, 50, and 65% at 2, 4, and 6 dpi. The NP was observed in the pontomedullary respiratory-related nuclei (but not in the carotid body) at 4 and 6 dpi, especially in 20% of RTN NK1R, 35% of LC TH, and ∼10% raphe TPH neurons. The infection significantly reduced the local NK1R or TPH immunoreactivity and population of neurons expressing NK1R or TPH. We conclude that the HK483 virus infects the pontomedullary respiratory nuclei, particularly chemosensitive neurons in the RTN, LC, and raphe, contributing to the severe depression of HCVR and respiratory failure at 6 dpi. NEW & NOTEWORTHY The H5N1 virus infection is lethal due to respiratory failure, but the relevant mechanisms remain unclear. In this study, we demonstrated a gradual diminution of hypercapnic ventilatory response to a degree, leading to respiratory failure over a 6-day infection. Death was associated with viral replication in the pontomedullary respiratory-related nuclei, especially the central chemosensitive neurons. These results not only provide insight into the mechanisms of the lethality of H5N1 viral infection but also offer clues in the development of corresponding treatments to minimize and prevent respiratory failure.

Substance P Receptor in the Rat Heart and Regulation of Its Expression in Long-Term Diabetes.

Substance P (SP) is a neuropeptide engaged in the signal transmission of neural C fibers afferents in the myocardium. The actions of SP in the heart are extensive and they are mediated by the neurokinin 1 receptor (NK1R), a member of the tachykinin subfamily of G-protein coupled receptors. The receptors have been found in the heart, but to our knowledge, their exact localization in the heart has not been described yet. Here, we investigated the presence of NK1R protein in separate rat heart compartments by means of western blot and its tissue distribution by means of immunofluorescence. Specificity of NK1R immunolabeling was controlled by preabsorption of the antiserum with its corresponding peptide. Additionally, we investigated abundance of gene for NK1R in separated heart chambers by means of quantitative real-time PCR (RT-PCR). Relative abundance of NK1R mRNA was expressed as a ratio of target gene Cq value to Cq value of control gene – beta-actin. Finally, we studied abundance of NK1R mRNA in different cell types of heart isolated by laser capture microdissection. Immunofluorescence showed NK1R immunoreactivity on the surface of some intracardiac neurons and smooth muscle cells of coronary vessels. The results of quantitative RT-PCR indicate abundance of mRNA for NK1R in all heart chambers with highest level in the left atrium. The presence of NK1R mRNA was detected in some samples of dissected intracardiac neurons, but not in cardiomyocytes or smooth muscle cells of coronary vessels. In the course of long-term diabetes, a significant downregulation of the NK1R mRNA was seen in the right atrium and upregulation in the right ventricle 53 weeks after the induction of diabetes. Our results indicate localization of NK1R in some intracardiac neurons and smooth muscle cells. Impaired transcription of the NK1R gene in the diabetic heart may be induced by unidentified genes or factors involved in the development of diabetic cardiomyopathy.

Substance P and the neurokinin-1 receptor expression in dog ileum with and without inflammation

In the gastrointestinal tract, the tachykinin Substance P (SP) is involved in motility, fluid and electrolyte secretion, and blood flow and regulation of immunoinflammatory response. SP exerts its biological activity on target cells by interacting mainly with the neurokinin-1 receptor (NK1R). The present study aims to quantify the percentage of SP-immunoreactive (SP-IR) enteric neurons and the density of SP-IR nerve fibers in the ileum of control dogs (CTRL-dogs; n=7) vs dogs with spontaneous ileal inflammation (INF-dogs; n=8). In addition, the percentage of enteric neurons bearing NK1R, and nitrergic neurons (nNOS-IR) expressing NK1R immunoreactivity were evaluated in both groups. The percentages of SP-IR neurons were similar in CTRL- and INF-dogs, in either the myenteric (MP) (15±8% vs. 16±7%, respectively) and submucosal plexus (SMP) (26±7% vs. 24±14%, respectively). In INF-dogs, the density of SP-IR mucosal nerve fibers showed a trend to decrease (P=0.07). Myenteric neurons of CTRL- and INF-dogs expressed similar percentages of NK1R-immunoreactivity (39±5% vs. 38±20%, respectively). Submucosal NK1R-IR neurons were occasionally observed in a CTRL-dog. MP nitrergic neurons bearing NK1R showed a trend to decrease in INF-dogs vs. CTRL- dogs (41±22% vs. 65±10%, respectively; P=0.11). In INF-dogs, muscle cells and immune cells overexpressed NK1R immunoreactivity. These findings should be taken as a warning for possible intestinal motility disorders, which might occur during administration of NK1R-antagonist drugs. Conversely, the strong expression of NK1R immunoreactivity observed in muscle and mucosal immune cells of inflamed tissues may provide a rationale for the use of NK1R antagonist drugs in the treatment of intestinal inflammation.

Increased neuronal expression of neurokinin‐1 receptor and stimulus‐evoked internalization of the receptor in the rostral ventromedial medulla of the rat after peripheral inflammatory injury

This study examined possible mechanisms by which Substance P (Sub P) assumes a pronociceptive role in the rostral ventromedial medulla (RVM) under conditions of peripheral inflammatory injury, in this case produced by intraplantar (ipl) injection of complete Freund's adjuvant (CFA). In saline- and CFA-treated rats, neurokinin-1 receptor (NK1R) immunoreactivity was localized to neurons in the RVM. Four days after ipl injection of CFA, the number of NK1R-immunoreactive neurons in the RVM was increased by 30%, and there was a concomitant increase in NK1R-immunoreactive processes in CFA-treated rats. Although NK1R immunoreactivity was increased, tachykinin-1 receptor (Tacr1) mRNA was not increased in the RVM of CFA-treated rats. To assess changes in Sub P release, the number of RVM neurons that exhibited NK1R internalization was examined in saline- and CFA-treated rats following noxious heat stimulation of the hind paws. Only CFA-treated rats that experienced noxious heat stimulation exhibited a significant increase in the number of neurons showing NK1R internalization. These data suggest that tonic Sub P release is not increased as a simple consequence of peripheral inflammation, but that phasic or evoked release of Sub P in the RVM is increased in response to noxious peripheral stimulation in a persistent inflammatory state. These data support the proposal that an upregulation of the NK1R in the RVM, as well as enhanced release of Sub P following noxious stimulation, underlie the pronociceptive role of Sub P under conditions of persistent inflammatory injury.

Neurokinin-1 receptor expression and antagonism by the NK-1R antagonist maropitant in canine melanoma cell lines and primary tumour tissues.

We interrogated the neurokinin-1 receptor (NK-1R)/substance P (SP) pathway in canine melanoma tumour tissues and cell lines. NK-1R messenger RNA (mRNA) and protein expression were observed in the majority of tumour tissues. Immunohistochemical assessment of archived tissue sections revealed NK-1R immunoreactivity in 11 of 15 tumours, which may have diagnostic, prognostic and therapeutic utility. However, we were unable to identify a preclinical in vitro cell line or in vivo xenograft model that recapitulates NK-1R mRNA and protein expression documented in primary tumours. While maropitant inhibited proliferation and enhanced apoptosis in cell lines, in the absence of documented NK-1R expression, this may represent off-target effects. Furthermore, maropitant failed to suppress tumour growth in a canine mouse xenograft model derived from a cell line expressing mRNA but not protein. While NK-1R represents a novel target, in the absence of preclinical models, in-species clinical trials will be necessary to investigate the therapeutic potential for antagonists such as maropitant.

Localisation and activation of the neurokinin 1 receptor in the enteric nervous system of the mouse distal colon.

The substance P neurokinin 1 receptor (NK1R) regulates motility, secretion, inflammation and pain in the intestine. The distribution of the NK1R is a key determinant of the functional effects of substance P in the gut. Information regarding the distribution of NK1R in subtypes of mouse enteric neurons is lacking and is the focus of the present study. NK1R immunoreactivity (NK1R-IR) is examined in whole-mount preparations of the mouse distal colon by indirect immunofluorescence and confocal microscopy. The distribution of NK1R-IR within key functional neuronal subclasses was determined by using established neurochemical markers. NK1R-IR was expressed by a subpopulation of myenteric and submucosal neurons; it was mainly detected in large multipolar myenteric neurons and was colocalized with calcitonin gene-related peptide, neurofilament M, choline acetyltransferase and calretinin. The remaining NK1R-immunoreactive neurons were positive for nitric oxide synthase. NK1R was expressed by most of the submucosal neurons and was exclusively co-expressed with vasoactive intestinal peptide, with no overlap with choline acetyltransferase. Treatment with substance P resulted in the concentration-dependent internalisation of NK1R from the cell surface into endosome-like structures. Myenteric NK1R was mainly expressed by intrinsic primary afferent neurons, with minor expression by descending interneurons and inhibitory motor neurons. Submucosal NK1R was restricted to non-cholinergic secretomotor neurons. These findings highlight key differences in the neuronal distribution of NK1R-IR between the mouse, rat and guinea-pig, with important implications for the functional role of NK1R in regulating intestinal motility and secretion.

Knockdown of the tachykinin neurokinin 1 receptor by intrathecal administration of small interfering RNA in rats

The contribution of tachykinin neurokinin 1 (NK₁) receptor to nociceptive processing in the dorsal horn has been evaluated by tachykinin NK₁ receptor antagonism and knockout or knockdown of tachykinin NK₁ receptor; however, these results have not always been consistent. Therefore, to reevaluate the role of tachykinin NK₁ receptor in the dorsal horn, a solution of hemagglutinating virus of the Japan envelope (HVJ-E) with small interfering RNA (siRNA) against tachykinin NK₁ receptor was administered intrathecally and then the effect of treatment on tachykinin NK₁ receptor immunohistochemistry and on the induction of inflammation, thermal hyperalgesia and scratching behavior was evaluated. This treatment resulted in marked reduction of tachykinin NK₁ receptor immunoreactivity through the spinal dorsal horn, and the induction of thermal hyperalgesia and scratching behavior by substance P was significantly attenuated in rats with tachykinin NK₁ receptor siRNA. In addition, only one intrathecal injection of tachykinin NK₁ receptor siRNA reduced carrageenan-induced inflammation and thermal hyperalgesia significantly and markedly attenuated the induction of flinching after formalin injection and c-Fos expression in the dorsal horn following formalin injection. The efficient down-regulation of tachykinin NK₁ receptor by intrathecal administration tachykinin NK₁ receptor siRNA suggests that this method may be a valuable tool for examining the function of genes expressed in the dorsal horn.

Immunohistochemical analysis of substance P-containing neurons in rat small intestine

The neuropeptide substance P (SP) is involved in the regulation of epithelial secretion and motility in the rat small intestine. The morphology, chemical profiles and proportion of SP-containing enteric neurons in this tissue have been examined by immunohistochemical analysis of whole-mount preparations obtained from colchicine-treated rats. In the submucosal plexus of the duodenum, jejunum and ileum, the proportion of SP-positive neurons is 53%, 51% and 49%, respectively. All SP-positive submucosal neurons are positive for neurofilament 200 (NF-200) and calretinin. Immunoreactivity for calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP) is detectable in 55% of the SP-positive submucosal neurons. Some SP-positive submucosal neurons have two or more long processes emerging from an oval or round cell body, a characteristic of the Dogiel type II neuron (type II neuron; a putative intrinsic primary afferent neuron). About one-third of the neurons in the myenteric plexus are positive for SP and a majority of them are NF-200/calretinin-positive type II neurons. Immunoreactivity for the SP receptor neurokinin-1 receptor (NK1R) has been detected mainly in the submucosal and myenteric NF-200-positive neurons, which are expected to contain SP. These neurons possibly stimulate each other via SP release. Most of the submucosal and myenteric neurons, including type II neurons, show immunoreactive for the prostaglandin E2 receptor EP3 receptor (EP3R). Thus, SP/NF-200/calretinin/NK1R/EP3R is the common chemical profile of type II neurons in the rat small intestine. The proportion of SP-immunopositive submucosal neurons (49%-53%) is higher in the rat small intestine than in the colon (≤11%) and around 50% are positive for CGRP.

Neurokinin 3 Receptor Immunoreactivity in the Septal Region, Preoptic Area and Hypothalamus of the Female Sheep: Colocalisation in Neurokinin B Cells of the Arcuate Nucleus but not in Gonadotrophin‐Releasing Hormone Neurones

Recent evidence has implicated neurokinin B (NKB) in the complex neuronal network mediating the effects of gonadal steroids on the regulation of gonadotrophin-releasing hormone (GnRH) secretion. Because the neurokinin 3 receptor (NK3R) is considered to mediate the effects of NKB at the cellular level, we determined the distribution of immunoreactive NK3R in the septal region, preoptic area (POA) and hypothalamus of the ewe. NK3R cells and/or fibres were found in areas including the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis, POA, anterior hypothalamic and perifornical areas, dopaminergic A15 region, dorsomedial and lateral hypothalamus, arcuate nucleus (ARC) and the ventral premammillary nucleus. We also used dual-label immunocytochemistry to determine whether a neuroanatomical basis for direct modulation of GnRH neurones by NKB was evident. No GnRH neurones at any rostral-caudal level were observed to contain NK3R immunoreactivity, although GnRH neurones and fibres were in proximity to NK3R-containing fibres. Because NKB fibres formed close contacts with NKB neurones in the ARC, we determined whether these NKB neurones also contained immunoreactive NK3R. In luteal-phase ewes, 64% +/- 11 of NKB neurones colocalised NK3R. In summary, NK3R is distributed in areas of the sheep POA and hypothalamus known to be involved in the control of reproductive neuroendocrine function. Colocalisation of NK3R in NKB neurones of the ARC suggests a potential mechanism for the autoregulation of this subpopulation; however, the lack of NK3R in GnRH neurones suggests that the actions of NKB on GnRH neurosecretory activity in the ewe are mediated indirectly via other neurones and/or neuropeptides.

Wsh/ Wsh c-Kit mutant mice possess interstitial cells of Cajal in the deep muscular plexus layer of the small intestine

The c-Kit receptor tyrosine kinase regulates the development and differentiation of various progenitor cells. W mutant mice with spontaneous mutations in the c-kit gene show various phenotypes such as anemia, infertility, loss of coat color and mast cells. c-Kit also regulates the development of the interstitial cells of Cajal (ICC) that are responsible for the motility regulation of the gastrointestinal musculature. W sh / W sh mice possess an inversion mutation upstream of the c-kit promoter region; this mutation is responsible for reducing c-Kit activity, leading to a decrease in the number of mast cells, melanocytes, and ICC. We extensively examined the small intestine of W sh / W sh mice by using immunohistochemistry and electron microscopy. Although the musculature of the W sh / W sh mice did not show any c-Kit immunoreactivity, there were neurokinin 1 receptor (NK1R)-immunopositive cells that were associated with the nerve fibers in the deep muscular plexus (DMP) region. These NK1R-immunopositive cells showed a bipolar shape with long processes and were identified as ICC in the DMP layer (ICC-DMP). Electron microscopic analysis revealed that ICC-DMP had numerous mitochondria, caveolae, and gap junctions and were closely associated with nerve terminals. In contrast, ICC were not observed at the myenteric layer. In the small intestine of the W sh / W sh mice, we detected ICC-DMP that showed NK1R immunoreactivity and ultrastructural characters. This type of ICC may develop and maturate structurally without c-Kit expression and regulate gastrointestinal motility.

Collateral projections of neurons in laminae I, III, and IV of rat spinal cord to thalamus, periaqueductal gray matter, and lateral parabrachial area

Projection neurons in lamina I, together with those in laminae III–IV that express the neurokinin 1 receptor (NK1r), form a major route through which nociceptive information reaches the brain. Axons of these cells innervate various targets, including thalamus, periaqueductal gray matter (PAG), and lateral parabrachial area (LPb), and many cells project to more than one target. The aims of this study were to quantify projections from cervical enlargement to PAG and LPb, to determine the proportion of spinothalamic neurons at lumbar and cervical levels that were labelled from PAG and LPb, and to investigate morphological differences between projection populations. The C7 segment contained fewer lamina I spinoparabrachial cells than L4, but a similar number of spino-PAG cells. Virtually all spinothalamic lamina I neurons at both levels were labelled from LPb and between one-third and one-half from PAG. This suggests that significant numbers project to all three targets. Spinothalamic lamina I neurons differed from those labelled only from LPb in that they were generally larger, were more often multipolar, and (in cervical enlargement) had stronger NK1r immunoreactivity. Most lamina III/IV NK1r cells at both levels projected to LPb, but few were labelled from PAG. The great majority of these cells in C7 and over one-fourth of those in L4 were spinothalamic, and at each level some projected to both thalamus and LPb. These results confirm that neurons in these laminae have extensive collateral projections and suggest that different neuronal subpopulations in lamina I have characteristic patterns of supraspinal projection. J. Comp. Neurol. 515:629–646, 2009.

Spinal substance P and neurokinin-1 increase with high repetition reaching

Musculoskeletal injury and inflammation is associated with performance of repetitive and forceful tasks. In this study, we examined the effects of performing a voluntary, highly repetitive, negligible force (HRNF) reaching task on spinal cord neurochemicals involved in nociception. To our knowledge, no other laboratories are examining spinal cord nociceptive neurochemicals in response to repetitive motion-induced injury and inflammation. The purpose of this study was to extend our earlier findings related to central neurotransmitters from a low demand task to a higher demand task. Specifically, this study determined immunoreactivity of a peptidergic pro-nociceptive transmitter (substance P) and one of its receptors, neurokinin-1 (NK-1) receptor, in spinal cord dorsal horns in rats performing a HRNF reaching task for 6–10 weeks. The relationship of these spinal cord changes with the number of TNFα immunopositive cells in flexor forelimb muscles and with previously observed forearm grip strength changes from these same rats were examined. Performance of the HRNF task resulted in significantly increased substance P and NK-1 receptor immunoreactivity in the superficial lamina of spinal cord dorsal horns at 6 and 10 weeks compared to trained controls ( p < 0.01). The increased substance P and NK-1 receptor immmunoreactivity were positively correlated with declines in forearm grip strength, an assay of movement-related hyperalgesia ( r = 0.70, p < 0.01 and r = 0.64, p < 0.05, respectively). The increased substance P and NK-1 receptor immmunoreactivity were also positively correlated with increased TNF immunopositive cells in forelimb flexor muscles ( r = 0.85, p < 0.001 and r = 0.88, p < 0.001, respectively). Thus, our highly repetitive task leads to increased spinal cord pro-nociceptive neurochemicals that are most likely directed by forelimb muscle inflammation and pain.

Neurokinin-1 Receptor Immunoreactive Neuronal Elements in the Superficial Dorsal Horn of the Chicken Spinal Cord: With Special Reference to Their Relationship with the Tachykinin-containing Central Axon Terminals in Synaptic Glomeruli

Synaptic glomeruli that involve tachykinin-containing primary afferent central terminals are numerous in lamina II of the chicken spinal cord. Therefore, a certain amount of noxious information is likely to be modulated in these structures in chickens. In this study, we used immunohistochemistry with confocal and electron microscopy to investigate whether neurokinin-1 receptor (NK-1R)-expressing neuronal elements are in contact with the central primary afferent terminals in synaptic glomeruli of the chicken spinal cord. We also investigated which neuronal elements (axon terminals, dendrites, cell bodies) and which neurons in the spinal cord possess NK-1R, and are possibly influenced by tachykinin in the glomeruli. By confocal microscopy, NK-1R immunoreactivities were seen in a variety of neuronal cell bodies, their dendrites and smaller fibers of unknown origin. Some of the NK-1R immunoreactive profiles also expressed GABA immunoreactivities. A close association was observed between the NK-1R-immunoreactive neurons and tachykinin-immunoreactive axonal varicosities. By electron microscopy, NK-1R immunoreactivity was seen in cell bodies, conventional dendrites and vesicle-containing dendrites in laminae I and II. Among these elements, dendrites and vesicle-containing dendrites made contact with tachykinin-containing central terminals in the synaptic glomeruli. These results indicate that tachykinin-containing central terminals in the chicken spinal cord can modulate second-order neuronal elements in the synaptic glomeruli.

Distribution of substance P and neurokinin-1 receptors in the peri-implant epithelium around titanium dental implants in rats

We examined the distribution of substance P and neurokinin-1 (NK1) receptors and substance-P-containing nerve fibers in the peri-implant mucosa around titanium dental implants in rats. Immunohistochemistry and immunocytochemistry revealed that substance-P-immunoreactive nerve fibers abundantly innervated the peri-implant epithelium (PIE) compared with other epithelia of the peri-implant mucosa. NK1 receptor mRNA and protein expression in the peri-implant mucosa were confirmed by reverse transcription with the polymerase chain reaction and immunoblotting. Immunoelectron microscopy revealed that NK1 receptor immunoreactivity was preferentially localized in peri-implant epithelial cells. NK1-receptor-positive products were found on the plasma membrane and in vesicles and granules in PIE cells. Neutrophils and intraepithelial nerve axons in the PIE were positive for the NK1 receptor. NK1 receptor immunoreactivity was also detected in endothelial cells, fibroblasts, and nerve fibers in the connective tissue beneath the PIE. These findings suggest that peri-implant tissue receives sensory information through regenerated nerves expressing substance P and the NK1 receptor. In the peri-implant mucosa, the substance P/NK1 receptor system may play a role in pain transmission, the endocytosis of neutrophils, the extravasation of crevicular fluid, and the migration of macrophages and neutrophils in response to neurogenic inflammation, as in healthy gingiva.

Trafficking of tachykinin neurokinin 3 receptor to nuclei of neurons in the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus following osmotic challenge

Tachykinin neurokinin 3 receptor (NK3R) is a G-protein (GTP binding protein) -coupled receptor that is heavily expressed by magnocellular neurons of the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus (PVN). Osmotic challenge is reported to activate NK3R expressed by magnocellular neurons and cause the NK3R to be internalized to the cytoplasm and perhaps the cell nucleus. In this study we show using immuno-electron microscopy that isolated nuclei from neurons in the PVN of osmotic challenged animals (rats) show a robust labeling for the NK3R. NK3R immunoreactivity was detected by Western blot in isolated nuclei of PVN neurons following the 2 M NaCl injection. No nuclear NK3R immunoreactivity was detected in control animals. NK3R antibody specificity was confirmed by small interfering (SI) RNA technology. This study establishes that the NK3R is trafficked to the nucleus of PVN neurons following a peripheral osmotic challenge.

Decreased Substance P and NK1 Receptor Immunoreactivity and Function in the Spinal Cord Dorsal Horn of Morphine-Treated Neonatal Rats

Opiate analgesic tolerance is defined as a need for higher doses of opiates to maintain pain relief after prolonged opiate exposure. Though changes in the opioid receptor undoubtedly occur during conditions of opiate tolerance, there is increasing evidence that opiate analgesic tolerance is also caused by pronociceptive adaptations in the spinal cord. We have previously observed increased glutamate release in the spinal cord dorsal horn of neonatal rats made tolerant to the opiate morphine. In this study, we investigate whether spinal substance P (SP) and its receptor, the neurokinin 1 (NK1) receptor, are also modulated by prolonged morphine exposure. Immunocytochemical studies show decreased SP- and NK1-immunoreactivity in the dorsal horn of morphine-treated rats, whereas SP mRNA in the dorsal root ganglia is not changed. Electrophysiological studies show that SP fails to activate the NK1 receptor in the morphine-treated rat. Taken together, the data indicate that chronic morphine treatment in the neonatal rat is characterized by a loss of SP effects on the NK1 receptor in lamina I of the neonatal spinal cord dorsal horn. The results are discussed in terms of compensatory spinal cord processes that may contribute to opiate analgesic tolerance. This article describes anatomical and physiological changes that occur in the spinal cord dorsal horn of neonatal rats after chronic morphine treatment. These changes may represent an additional compensatory process of morphine tolerance and may represent an additional therapeutic target for the retention and restoration of pain relief with prolonged morphine treatment.

Morphological characterization of spinal cord dorsal horn lamina I neurons projecting to the parabrachial nucleus in the rat

Many Rexed's lamina I neurons are nociceptive and project to the brain. Lamina I projection neurons can be classified as multipolar, fusiform, or pyramidal, based on cell body shape and characteristics of their proximal dendrites in the horizontal plane. There is also evidence that both multipolar and fusiform cells are nociceptive and pyramidal neurons nonnociceptive. In this investigation we identified which types of lamina I neurons belong to the spinoparabrachial tract in the rat and characterized them regarding the presence or absence of neurokinin-1 receptor (NK-1r) immunoreactivity. For this, cholera toxin subunit B (CTb), conjugated to a fluorescent marker was injected unilaterally into the parabrachial nucleus. Sections were additionally stained for the detection of NK-1r immunoreactivity and were examined using fluorescence and confocal microscopy. Serial confocal optical sections and 3D reconstructions were obtained for a considerable number of neurons per animal. Using immunofluorescence, we assessed the proportion of lamina I neurons belonging to the spinoparabrachial (SPB) tract and/or expressing NK-1r. The relative distribution of neurons belonging to the SPB tract was: 38.7% multipolar, 36.8% fusiform, 22.7% pyramidal, and 1.9% unclassified. Most of the SPB neurons expressing NK-1r were either multipolar or fusiform. Pyramidal SPB neurons were seldom immunoreactive for NK-1r, an observation that provides further support to the concept that most lamina I projection neurons of the pyramidal type are nonnociceptive. In addition, our study provides further evidence that these distinct morphological types of neurons differ in their phenotypic properties, but not in their projection patterns.