Habitat Networks Research Articles

Comparative Composition, Diversity and Trophic Ecology of Sediment Macrofauna at Vents, Seeps and Organic Falls

Sediments associated with hydrothermal venting, methane seepage and large organic falls such as whale, wood and plant detritus create deep-sea networks of soft-sediment habitats fueled, at least in part, by the oxidation of reduced chemicals. Biological studies at deep-sea vents, seeps and organic falls have looked at macrofaunal taxa, but there has yet to be a systematic comparison of the community-level attributes of sediment macrobenthos in various reducing ecosystems. Here we review key similarities and differences in the sediment-dwelling assemblages of each system with the goals of (1) generating a predictive framework for the exploration and study of newly identified reducing habitats, and (2) identifying taxa and communities that overlap across ecosystems. We show that deep-sea seep, vent and organic-fall sediments are highly heterogeneous. They sustain different geochemical and microbial processes that are reflected in a complex mosaic of habitats inhabited by a mixture of specialist (heterotrophic and symbiont-associated) and background fauna. Community-level comparisons reveal that vent, seep and organic-fall macrofauna are very distinct in terms of composition at the family level, although they share many dominant taxa among these highly sulphidic habitats. Stress gradients are good predictors of macrofaunal diversity at some sites, but habitat heterogeneity and facilitation often modify community structure. The biogeochemical differences across ecosystems and within habitats result in wide differences in organic utilization (i.e., food sources) and in the prevalence of chemosynthesis-derived nutrition. In the Pacific, vents, seeps and organic-falls exhibit distinct macrofaunal assemblages at broad-scales contributing to ß diversity. This has important implications for the conservation of reducing ecosystems, which face growing threats from human activities.

Interbasin Water Transfer, Riverine Connectivity, and Spatial Controls on Fish Biodiversity

BackgroundLarge-scale inter-basin water transfer (IBWT) projects are commonly proposed as solutions to water distribution and supply problems. These problems are likely to intensify under future population growth and climate change scenarios. Scarce data on the distribution of freshwater fishes frequently limits the ability to assess the potential implications of an IBWT project on freshwater fish communities. Because connectivity in habitat networks is expected to be critical to species' biogeography, consideration of changes in the relative isolation of riverine networks may provide a strategy for controlling impacts of IBWTs on freshwater fish communities.Methods/Principal FindingsUsing empirical data on the current patterns of freshwater fish biodiversity for rivers of peninsular India, we show here how the spatial changes alone under an archetypal IBWT project will (1) reduce freshwater fish biodiversity system-wide, (2) alter patterns of local species richness, (3) expand distributions of widespread species throughout peninsular rivers, and (4) decrease community richness by increasing inter-basin similarity (a mechanism for the observed decrease in biodiversity). Given the complexity of the IBWT, many paths to partial or full completion of the project are possible. We evaluate two strategies for step-wise implementation of the 11 canals, based on economic or ecological considerations. We find that for each step in the project, the impacts on freshwater fish communities are sensitive to which canal is added to the network.Conclusions/SignificanceImportantly, ecological impacts can be reduced by associating the sequence in which canals are added to characteristics of the links, except for the case when all 11 canals are implemented simultaneously (at which point the sequence of canal addition is inconsequential). By identifying the fundamental relationship between the geometry of riverine networks and freshwater fish biodiversity, our results will aid in assessing impacts of IBWT projects and balancing ecosystem and societal demands for freshwater, even in cases where biodiversity data are limited.

Do network relationships matter? Comparing network and instream habitat variables to explain densities of juvenile coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch) in mid‐coastal Oregon, USA

ABSTRACT Aquatic ecologists are working to develop theory and techniques for analysis of dynamic stream processes and communities of organisms. Such work is critical for the development of conservation plans that are relevant at the scale of entire ecosystems. The stream network is the foundation upon which stream systems are organized. Natural and human disturbances in streams alter the configuration of stream habitats such as pools, riffles, and glides across seasons, decades, or centuries. Thus, native aquatic species have developed mechanisms for adapting to the dynamic configuration of habitats in stream networks. At different spatial scales, stream network structure informs habitat connectivity for aquatic–obligate species. The movement of aquatic species both upstream and downstream is limited by stream channels and may be modified by the downstream flow of water, nutrients, and physical materials such as wood and substrate. Analysing streams as networks offers a realistic and holistic perspective for assessing movement and distribution by freshwater aquatic species in response to life‐history needs and environmental conditions. In this study, network analysis was facilitated by automating, in a Geographic Information System, the calculation of network distances and variables that represent spatial configuration. A comparison between traditional instream habitat variables and network variables for juvenile coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch) in seven sub‐basins of Oregon's mid‐coast over a 5‐year period revealed that network variables perform better at explaining juvenile coho salmon density than instream habitat variables. Moreover, analysis of network distances among seasonal habitats indicates that juvenile coho salmon density may be higher where the distance between critical seasonal habitats is short. This work furthers aquatic conservation, management, and restoration by including analysis of the proximity and connectivity among aquatic freshwater habitats. Published in 2012. This article is a US Government work and is in the public domain in the USA.

Integrating graph-based connectivity metrics into species distribution models

Species distribution models (SDMs) are commonly used in ecology to map the probability of species occurrence on the basis of predictive factors describing the physical environment. We propose an improvement on SDMs by using graph methods to quantify landscape connectivity. After (1) mapping the habitat suitable for a given species, this approach consists in (2) building a landscape graph, (3) computing patch-based connectivity metrics, (4) extrapolating the values of those metrics to any point of space, and (5) integrating those connectivity metrics into a predictive model of presence. For a given species, this method can be used to interpret the significance of the metrics in the models in terms of population structure. The method is illustrated here by the construction of an SDM for the European tree frog in the region of Franche-Comte (France). The results show that the connectivity metrics improve the explanatory power of the SDM and emphasize the important role of the habitat network.

Potential habitat connectivity of European bison (Bison bonasus) in the Carpathians

Habitat connectivity is important for the survival of species that occupy habitat patches too small to sustain an isolated population. A prominent example of such a species is the European bison (Bison bonasus), occurring only in small, isolated herds, and whose survival will depend on establishing larger, well-connected populations. Our goal here was to assess habitat connectivity of European bison in the Carpathians. We used an existing bison habitat suitability map and data on dispersal barriers to derive cost surfaces, representing the ability of bison to move across the landscape, and to delineate potential connections (as least-cost paths) between currently occupied and potential habitat patches. Graph theory tools were then employed to evaluate the connectivity of all potential habitat patches and their relative importance in the network. Our analysis showed that existing bison herds in Ukraine are isolated. However, we identified several groups of well-connected habitat patches in the Carpathians which could host a large population of European bison. Our analysis also located important dispersal corridors connecting existing herds, and several promising locations for future reintroductions (especially in the Eastern Carpathians) that should have a high priority for conservation efforts. In general, our approach indicates the most important elements within a landscape mosaic for providing and maintaining the overall connectivity of different habitat networks and thus offers a robust and powerful tool for conservation planning.

Can the Black bog ant (Formica picea Nyl.) survive in the Bieszczady National Park (SE Poland)?

In the peat bogs of the Bieszczady National Park an inventory of the Black bog ant (Formica picea Nyl.) was made in order to get an impression of the probability of its survival in SE Poland. Three habitat networks are distinguished, which are situated too far from each other for (re)colonization by means of flying queens. The largest network includes five peat bogs. In two of them F. picea was found. The species was not found in peat bogs which belong to the other habitat networks. The quality of the peat bogs depends on management strategies, currently challenged by two main threats: desiccation and the influx of nutrients. This process will speed up the succession of the vegetation. As a result dwarf shrubs are encroaching on habitat areas of F. picea, where Sphagnum species are still dominating in the moss layer

Road, forestry and regional planners' work for biodiversity conservation and public participation: a case study in Poland's hotspot regions

We studied how regional, road and forestry planning sectors work to implement policies about biodiversity conservation and public participation. Evaluations were based on a normative model for planning derived from the existing international policies and relevant literature. Key planning actors were then interviewed with regard to their understanding of biodiversity and participation policies as well as ability to act and willingness to implement them. The results indicate several gaps in planning processes, for example, insufficient knowledge about biodiversity conservation and participation, limited resources and tools for planning of functional habitat networks and collaboration, poor connections between local and regional planning, and weakly developed public participation. The main problem for effective policy implementation seems to be related to planners' ability to act, which indicates that relatively low priority was given to provide resources for biodiversity conservation and public participation by the relevant units. We discuss our findings in relation to the implementation of environmental policies in the new EU countries of Eastern and Central Europe.

How does forest certification contribute to boreal biodiversity conservation? Standards and outcomes in Sweden and NW Russia

Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) is one of the leading forest certification schemes. While many studies concern political aspects and social outcomes of FSC, little is known about the contribution of certification to biodiversity conservation. In Europe, the Russian Federation and Sweden have the largest areas of FSC-certified forest. We assessed the potential of FSC certification for boreal biodiversity conservation in terms of standard content, and outcomes as habitat area set aside and habitat network functionality. First, we compared the biodiversity conservation indicators at different spatial scales in Swedish and Russian FSC standards. Second, focusing on one large state forest management unit in each country, we compared the areas of formally and voluntarily set aside forests for biodiversity conservation. Third, we evaluated the structural habitat connectivity by applying morphological spatial pattern analysis, and potential functional connectivity by using habitat suitability index modelling for virtual species. The Russian standard included indicators for all spatial scales of biodiversity conservation, from tree and stand to landscape and ecoregions. The Swedish standard focused mainly on stand and tree scales. The area of voluntary set-asides for FSC was similar in Sweden and Russia, while formal protection in the Russian case study was three times higher than in the Swedish one. Swedish set-aside core areas were two orders of magnitude smaller, had much lower structural and potential functional connectivity and were located in a fragmented forestland holding. We conclude that to understand the potential of FSC certification for biodiversity conservation both the standard content, and its implementation on the ground, need to be assessed. We discuss the potential of FSC certification for biodiversity conservation with different levels of ambition. We stress the need for developing rapid assessment tools to evaluate outcomes of FSC for biodiversity conservation on the ground, which could be used by forest managers and FSC-auditors toward adaptive governance and management.

Key structural forest connectors can be identified by combining landscape spatial pattern and network analyses

Conservation and enhancement of ecological connectivity is widely recognized as one of the key objectives of forest landscape management. However, practical difficulties still exist due to the lack of pragmatic and operational methodologies that can be efficiently applied for these purposes within the scope of a forest management plan. Here we present the novel integration of two recent approaches for analyzing forest structural connectivity that offers considerable synergies and potential relevant benefits for forest planning at a variety of scales. We combine the morphological analysis of forest spatial patterns with recent indices for the analysis of landscape network connectivity based on the concept of measuring habitat availability (reachability) at the landscape scale. The combination of these approaches in a single integrated workflow embraces from (1) the diagnosis and characterization at the pixel level of the forest spatial patterns and their individual constituents, which are mainly the core habitat areas and the structural connectors (bridges) between them, to (2) the assessment of their individual importance to uphold ecological fluxes as irreplaceable providers of structural connectivity. We present and show different analytical possibilities within the integrated workflow from where the manager can choose depending on the planning targets and on the characteristics of the ecological processes of interest. We illustrate the application of the combined approach in two forested areas in Central Spain with different scales and management contexts, in which the structural connectivity between forest habitat areas needs to be sustained. Our assessment was able to discriminate and highlight a concise subset of cores and bridges that concentrated most of the contribution to the overall connectivity and functioning of the forest habitat network. This provides clear guidelines on where the conservation management efforts should be targeted, allowing for many alternative areas where the rest of the management objectives and activities can be accommodated as required by the multifunctionality of forest resources. The proposed integrated approach can equally serve to identify (a) those forest areas that play a crucial role to sustain ecological fluxes that are to be promoted by management, such as the dispersal of native biota or (b) those sites where the spread of wildfires or invasive species can be halted more effectively. The potential of the proposed methodology to inform and guide forestry decisions is reinforced by the availability of the required analytical tools (Guidos and Conefor Sensinode) as freeware software packages.

Connectivity for conservation: a framework to classify network measures

Graph theory, network theory, and circuit theory are increasingly being used to quantify multiple aspects of habitat connectivity and protected areas. There has been an explosive proliferation of network (connectivity) measures, resulting in over 60 measures for ecologists to now choose from. Conceptual clarification on the ecological meaning of these network measures and their interrelationships is overdue. We present a framework that categorizes network measures based on the connectivity property that they quantify (i.e., route-specific flux, route redundancy, route vulnerability, and connected habitat area) and the structural level of the habitat network to which they apply. The framework reveals a lack of network measures in the categories of "route-specific flux among neighboring habitat patches" and "route redundancy at the level of network components." We propose that network motif and path redundancy measures can be developed to fill the gaps in these categories. The value of this framework lies in its ability to inform the selection and application of network measures. Ultimately, it will allow a better comparison among graph, network, and circuit analyses, which will improve the design and management of connected landscapes.

Contribution of habitat patches to network connectivity: Redundancy and uniqueness of topological indices

In order to increase the efficiency of monitoring and conservation efforts, it is of key importance to develop sound quantitative methods that are able to indicate which key areas and landscape elements play prominent and crucial role in the functioning of habitat mosaics. In particular, network models are being widely used to evaluate the contribution of landscape elements to uphold connectivity and related ecological fluxes. However, monitoring programs and conservation practitioners are overwhelmed by a myriad of network indices without being fully aware of their differences for characterizing the importance of individual habitat patches in fragmented landscapes. We analysed a set of thirteen commonly used graph indices and the forest habitat network of goshawks living in NE Spain in order to (a) evaluate how the patch rank orders derived from these indices differ from each other and (b) identify which indices tend to quantify the same network characteristics and which others are quite unique in addressing topological characteristics that are not considered by the rest. We found that most of the variability in patch rankings can be captured by only three network indices. The largest group of redundant indices corresponded to those that intend to measure the amount of flux received by a given habitat patch. The connector fraction of the integral index of connectivity (IIC) and probability of connectivity (PC) indices and betweenness centrality (BC) stood out as quite unique by focusing on the way habitat patches act as connecting elements between other habitat areas. We discuss which indices can be most beneficial by clearly indicating and differentiating the value of the top patches compared to the others, so that conservation priorities can be established with lower uncertainties. We believe that our results can provide valuable guidelines by facilitating the selection of a few non-redundant and complementary indicators that quantify the important and distinctive roles of habitat patches in maintaining the connectivity of habitat networks.

Isolation determines patterns of species presence in highly fragmented landscapes

In fragmented landscapes, changes in habitat availability, patch size, shape and isolation may affect survival of local populations. Proposing efficient conservation strategies for such species relies initially on distinguishing the particular effects of those factors. To address these issues, we investigated the occurrence of 3 bird species in fragmented Brazilian Atlantic Forest landscapes. Playback techniques were used to collect presence/absence data of these species inside 80 forest patches, and incidence models were used to infer their occupancy pattern from landscape spatial structure. The relative importance of patch size, shape and surrounding forest cover and isolation was assessed using a model selection approach based on maximum likelihood estimation. The presence of all species was in general positively affected by the amount of surrounding habitat and negatively affected by inter‐patch distances. The joint effects of patch size and the surrounding landscape characteristics were important determinants of occupancy for two species. The third species was affected only by forest cover and mean patch isolation. Our results suggest that local species presence is in general more influenced by the isolation from surrounding forests than by patch size alone. We found evidence that, in highly fragmented landscapes, birds that can not find patches large enough to settle may be able to overcome short distances through the matrix and include several nearby patches within their home‐ranges to complement their resource needs. In these cases, patches must be defined as functionally connected habitat networks rather than mere continuous forest segments. Bird conservation strategies in the Atlantic forest should focus on increasing patch density and connectivity, in order to implement forest networks that reduce the functional isolation between large remnants with remaining core habitat.

The disentangled bank: How loss of habitat fragments and disassembles ecological networks

Habitat transformation is one of the leading causes of changes in biodiversity and the breakdown of ecosystem function and services. The impacts of habitat transformation on biodiversity are complex and can be difficult to test and demonstrate. Network approaches to biodiversity science have provided a powerful set of tools and models that are beginning to present new insight into the structural and functional effects of habitat transformation on complex ecological systems. We propose a framework for studying the ways in which habitat loss and fragmentation jointly affect biodiversity by altering both habitat and ecological interaction networks. That is, the explicit study of "networks of networks" is required to understand the impacts of habitat change on biodiversity. We conduct a broad review of network methods and results, with the aim of revealing the common approaches used by landscape ecology and community ecology. We find that while a lot is known about the consequences of habitat transformation for habitat network topology and for the structure and function of simple antagonistic and mutualistic interaction networks, few studies have evaluated the consequences for large interaction networks with complex and spatially explicit architectures. Moreover, almost no studies have been focused on the continuous feedback between the spatial structure and dynamics of the habitat network and the structure and dynamics of the interaction networks inhabiting the habitat network. We conclude that theory and experiments that tackle the ecology of networks of networks are needed to provide a deeper understanding of biodiversity change in fragmented landscapes.

Colonization and extinction dynamics of an annual plant metapopulation in an urban environment

The metapopulation framework considers that the spatiotemporal distribution of organisms results from a balance between the colonization and extinction of populations in a suitable and discrete habitat network. Recent spatially realistic metapopulation models have allowed patch dynamics to be investigated in natural populations but such models have rarely been applied to plants. Using a simple urban fragmented population system in which favourable habitat can be easily mapped, we studied patch dynamics in the annual plant Crepis sancta (Asteraceae). Using stochastic patch occupancy models (SPOMs) and multi‐year occupancy data we dissected extinction and colonization patterns in our system. Overall, our data were consistent with two distinct metapopulation scenarios. A metapopulation (sensu stricto) dynamic in which colonization occurs over a short distance and extinction is lowered by nearby occupied patches (rescue effect) was found in a set of patches close to the city centre, while a propagule rain model in which colonization occurs from a large external population was most consistent with data from other networks. Overall, the study highlights the importance of external seed sources in urban patch dynamics. Our analysis emphasizes the fact that plant distributions are governed not only by habitat properties but also by the intrinsic properties of colonization and dispersal of species. The metapopulation approach provides a valuable tool for understanding how colonization and extinction shape occupancy patterns in highly fragmented plant populations. Finally, this study points to the potential utility of more complex plant metapopulation models than traditionally used for analysing ecological and evolutionary processes in natural metapopulations.

An island paradigm on the mainland: host population fragmentation impairs the community of avian pathogens.

Emergent infectious diseases represent a major threat for biodiversity in fragmented habitat networks, but their dynamics in host metapopulations remain largely unexplored. We studied a large community of pathogens (including 26 haematozoans, bacteria and viruses as determined through polymerase chain reaction assays) in a highly fragmented mainland bird metapopulation. Contrary to recent studies, which have established that the prevalence of pathogens increase with habitat fragmentation owing to crowding and habitat-edge effects, the analysed pathogen parameters were neither dependent on host densities nor related to the spatial structure of the metapopulation. We provide, to our knowledge, the first empirical evidence for a positive effect of host population size on pathogen prevalence, richness and diversity. These new insights into the interplay between habitat fragmentation and pathogens reveal properties of a host-pathogen system resembling island environments, suggesting that severe habitat loss and fragmentation could lower pathogen pressure in small populations.

Landscape metrics as indicators: Quantifying habitat network changes of a bush-cricket Pholidoptera transsylvanica in Hungary

Fragmentation of habitats is a serious problem for many endangered species; a possible solution is the maintenance of landscape connectivity. Due to scarce sources, in managing and planning landscapes exact and quantitative priorities must be set. Application of mathematical tools, such as network analysis, can be useful help in these decisions. We illustrate the possibilities and results of this approach with a case study of endangered Pholidoptera transsylvanica bush-cricket population in the Aggtelek Karst, Northeast-Hungary, which inhabits 39 habitat patches connected with ecological corridors. A key issue in the long-term survival of this metapopulation is the maintenance of gene flow (by preserving the connectivity of the habitat network). We evaluated the landscape graph and our results are compared to earlier ones based on older methods. During the comparison, we used several network indices to set quantitative conservation preferences. In addition, we would like to draw attention to the need for constant monitoring (and possible treatments), because several changes (like secondary succession) have occurred during the years between the two studies, threatening landscape connectivity and long-term survival of certain species. A potential solution for preventing fragmentation is establishing new corridors or improving the existing ones: we estimated the possible effects of these changes. New corridors did not have major effect on the system; maintaining already functioning corridors is more effective.

The dispersal ability of wood cricket (Nemobius sylvestris) (Orthoptera: Gryllidae) in a wooded landscape

Information on the dispersal ability of flightless insect species associated with woodlands is severely lacking. Therefore, a study was conducted examining the dispersal ability of wood cricket (Nemobius sylvestris) juveniles (nymphs) and adults in a wooded landscape on the Isle of Wight, UK, to further our understanding of the ecology and management of this and other flightless insects. A series of experiments were conducted where nymphs and adults were released and observed at a range of spatial-temporal scales within different habitat environments. The results of this investigation indicated no difference in the dispersal ability of wood cricket nymphs and adults. However, adult females moved less than adult males. Adult males were found to spread twice as fast as females, and males were found capable of traversing up to 55 m away from woodland habitat through semi-natural and grazed grassland. Additionally, rates of population spread of both wood cricket nymphs and adults (males and females) were found to be accurately described by the inverse-power function, predicting only few individuals dispersing over time. Together this indicates that overall colonization success and rate of population spread, being female dependent, is likely to be low for this species. Wood crickets were found to live in and able to move along mature woodland edges directly bordering agricultural land. This indicates that conservation initiatives focusing on creating woodland corridors and developing woodland habitat networks have the potential to facilitate the spread and population viability of wood crickets, if the woodland edges are given enough time to develop. However, long-term monitoring is needed to evaluate the overall effectiveness of such approaches.

Protecting forest areas for biodiversity in Sweden 1991–2010: the policy implementation process and outcomes on the ground

Swedish forest and environmental policies imply that forests should be managed so that all naturally occurring species are maintained in viable populations. This requires maintenance of functional networks of representative natural forest and cultural woodland habitats. We first review the policy implementation process regarding protected areas in Sweden 1991–2010, how ecological knowledge was used to formulate interim short-term and strategic long-term biodiversity conservation goals, and the development of a hierarchical spatial planning approach. Second, we present data about the amount of formally protected and voluntarily set aside forest stands, and evaluate how much remains in terms of additional forest protection, conservation management and habitat restoration to achieve forest and environmental policy objectives in the long-term. Third, a case study in central Sweden was made to estimate the functionality of old Scots pine, Norway spruce and deciduous forest habitats, as well as cultural woodland, in different forest regions. Finally, we assess operational biodiversity conservation planning processes. We conclude that Swedish policy pronouncements capture the contemporary knowledge about biodiversity and conservation planning well. However, the existing area of protected and set-aside forests is presently too small and with too poor connectivity. To bridge this gap, spatial planning, management and restoration of habitat, as well as collaboration among forest and conservation planners need to be improved.

Creating Ecologically Based Land Use and Habitat Maps Quickly and Cheaply to Support Conservation Planning at Local Scales: A New Zealand Example

Effective planning to support and enhance ecological values in sites of conservation interest requires accurate, comprehensive and detailed ecologically based maps and data, not only for the conservation site but for the wider landscape in which such sites are situated. In this paper we present an efficient and low cost method for combining appropriate technologies and available data to produce such maps at a landscape level. This method is described and evaluated using a case study of a land use and habitat map, with an associated geographic information system (GIS). The map was created for the district of Dunedin, New Zealand, an area of approximately 3340 km2. This paper demonstrates how the map can be adapted for use by small, locally based conservation organisations that typically do not have the resources to obtain detailed, consistent and comprehensive spatial data for the areas they manage. The example of Orokonui Ecosanctuary is used to illustrate the potential applications of the map including mapping assets and habitats within a site and for exploring the relationship between the Ecosanctuary's internal and external habitats. External habitats can form a vital habitat network for many of the endangered species being reintroduced into the Ecosanctuary as well as a source of threats through potential reinvasion by pests and land use change. Though the mapping method presented in this paper is not necessarily new, it demonstrates the potential for utilising advances in mapping techniques and available data sets to offer a pragmatic support mechanism of practical value for small conservation organisations.

Are the conservation areas sufficient to conserve endangered plant species in Korea?

Understanding the factors relevant to endangerment and the patterns of habitat locations in relation to protected areas is critically important for the conservation of rare species. Although 64 plant species have recently been listed as endangered species in Korea, this information has, until now, not been available, making appropriate management and conservation strategies impossible to devise. Thus, we collected information on potentially threatening factors, as well as information on the locations in which these species were observed. The potentially threatening factors were classified into seven categories. National parks, provincial parks, ecosystem conservation areas, and wetland conservation areas were defined as protected conservation areas. Korean digital elevation model data, along with the maps of all protected areas were combined with the maps of endangered plant species, and analyzed via Geographic Information Systems (GIS). Excluding the category of small population, endangered plant species in Korea were associated more frequently with extrinsic factors than intrinsic factors. Considering land surface only, all conservation areas in Korea totaled 4.9% of the land, far lower than International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN)`s 10% coverage target. At the species level, 69% of the endangered plant species were detected in conservation areas, mostly in national parks. However, this result demonstrates that 31% of endangered species inhabit areas outside the conservation zones. Furthermore, at the habitat level, a large proportion of endangered species were found to reside in unprotected areas, revealing gaps in protected land. In the face of rapid environmental changes such as population increases, urbanization, and climate changes, converting these gap areas to endangered species` habitats, or at least including them in habitat networks, will help to perpetuate the existence of endangered species.