Nest Type Research Articles

Variation and diversity of symbiotic protist composition in the damp-wood termite Hodotermopsis sjoestedti

SUMMARY It is well recognized that composition of termite symbiotic protist community generally show hostspecies specificity at species-to-species level. On the other hand, studies focused on population or colony level variations of the protist composition are few, although such studies are necessary for understanding the termite-protist mutualism. In this study we investigated symbiotic protist fauna of 34 Hodotermopsis sjoestedti nests collected from five islands in the Ryukyu Archipelago, Taiwan Is., and southern part of Chinese continent. Thirteen parabasalid species and six oxymonad species, which were reported from the host termite collected in Yakushima Is., were recognized in this study. Four parabasalids were identified as recently described species from H. sjoestedti collected in Vietnam. The fauna was the most speciesrich among the termite hosts studied to date, possibly reflecting large host body size. The prevalence rates of the symbiotic protist species are generally high, 100% in all populations for all protist species, except Gen. A sp. and Hoplonympha sp. All host nests had identical protist species composition except for the presence or absence of Gen. A sp. Two host populations lacked this species. In Yakushima Is., both types of termite nests were found, which exhibited mutually exclusive distribution. The distribution pattern suggests that the host termite is a multiple-site nester and nest-budding occurs in the field.

Nest Types and Nest-Site Selection of the Little BitternIxobrychus minutusBreeding in Fishpond Habitat in South-Eastern Poland

ABSTRACT The paper describes chosen habitat conditions determining the occurrence and nesting of the Little Bittern Ixobrychus minutus and their effect on the nest type (breeding nest BN or mock nest MN). The Little Bittern is a monogamous bird whose male can build a couple of nests during the breeding season. The main questions posed in this work are: (1) what habitat is chosen for the nesting site, and (2) do habitat conditions influence the nest type? The study was carried out in a fishpond complex in the Lasy Janowskie Landscape Park (SE Poland) during the breeding seasons of 2010−2012. All 44 nests (23 BN and 21 MN) were built in a waterside belt of perennial Common Reed Phragmites australis. All nests were built at sites with water depth between 11 and 101 cm. The type of the nest did not depend on the date when it was built during the breeding season. There was a significant difference in the width of the nests between breeding and mock nests. Moreover, obtained results showed a significant influen...

Population Status of the Eastern Phoebe in South-Central North Carolina: Breeding Increase at Water-Based Anthropogenic Sites Congruent with Breeding Bird Survey (BBS) and Christmas Bird Count (CBC) Data

Abstract Few studies in southeastern North America have compared local data sets to locally based results from 2 national surveys (North American breeding bird survey [BBS], Christmas bird count [CBC]). In 2012, I reexamined nest-site type use and nest type of Sayornis phoebe (Eastern Phoebe) at 109 water-based anthropogenic structures originally studied in south-central North Carolina in 1981. In 2012, Eastern Phoebes still strongly preferred breeding at small bridges with ledges, especially at the same structures where I studied them in 1981, even though use of other nest-site types slightly increased except at circular culverts, where no Eastern Phoebes nested. During the 31-year interval between studies, ∼1/3rd of the bridges (20 of 62; 32%) were replaced with structures less favorable as nest-sites; thus, a lower number and proportion of small bridges with ledges were available in 2012. Although breeding Eastern Phoebes are still slowly increasing in abundance at water-based anthropogenic sites in so...

Reptile embryos and climate change: Modelling limits of viability to inform translocation decisions

The embryos of many egg-laying species develop under the environmental conditions selected by one or both parents, and these conditions may cease to be optimal under a changed climate. Assisted colonization is an emerging option to relocate species that are threatened by unfavourable changes in the local climate, but the incubation requirements of embryos are rarely considered in conservation translocations despite suggestions that relocation of early life stages could be more effective than relocating older animals. Here we review examples and outcomes of relocations of reptile eggs, and the decision tools currently available for guiding translocation decisions from an embryonic perspective. We then demonstrate a mechanistic approach, using the modelling framework NicheMapR, for assessing the optimal translocation range for the Western Swamp Turtle (Pseudemydura umbrina), a Critically Endangered reptile with an extremely restricted natural distribution. We determine thermal reaction norms and critical thermal limits for embryonic development based on laboratory and field data, and model soil temperatures at typical nest depths, simulate embryonic development at these depths, and map the probability of survival of P. umbrina embryos within the major bioregions of south-western Australia. The same model forced by future climates for 2050–70 demonstrates a southerly shift in the regions where embryos would be viable. However, if P. umbrina is to be translocated in the near future to regions 300–400km south of its natural range, females will need to nest in relatively unshaded sites to achieve temperatures that are high enough to promote hatchling success.

Nest building under the risk of predation: safe nests are not always the best option

Nest predation is a widespread demographic and evolutionary force in avian reproduction, but few studies have considered the circumstances under which birds might invest in the construction of safe nests. We examined this question using a stochastic simulation model based on a basic passerine breeding season. Nest safety functions were used to translate time invested in nest building into an increase in daily nest survival; that increase could be rapid, requiring only a few days to achieve a safe nest, or slow, taking many days to do so. The maximum achievable safety differed across nest safety functions. Given a limited length to the breeding season, a greater time investment in nest safety detracts from the time available for re‐nesting following successful or unsuccessful nesting attempts. In many circumstances, the best option is a quick‐build ‘minimal’ nest that provides adequate support for young, but little additional safety from attacks. This is especially true for scenarios that allow for multiple nesting attempts across a season. However, relatively safe nests that can be built fairly quickly are uniformly favored options. Safe, long‐build nests are favored only when they provide a great deal of safety over other nest‐building options, but greater safety alone is not sufficient for such investment. Simulations allowing only a single nesting attempt generally favor a greater investment in nest safety. Parental survival is another important factor in nest investment. Increased danger to the parent during nest building strongly favors a low investment in nests. However, substantial investment in a safe nest is favored when that safety extends to the incubating parent. Our results provide some insight into the prevalence of seemingly unsafe, open‐cup nests across the bird world, but the range of nest types that could potentially be built by a given species is an open question.

Performance ofMyrmicaant colonies is correlated with the presence of social parasites

1. The performance of ant colonies depends on different factors such as nest site, colony structure or the presence of pathogens and social parasites. Myrmica ants host various types of social parasites, including the larvae of Maculinea butterflies and Microdonmyrmicae (Schonrogge) hoverfly. How these social parasites affect host colony performance is still unexplored. 2. It was examined how the presence of Maculinea teleius Bergstrasser, Maculinea alcon (Denis & Schiffermuller), and M. myrmicae larvae, representing different feeding and growth strategies inside host colonies, is associated with worker survival, the number of foragers, and colony productivity parameters such as growth and reproduction. 3. It was found that the presence of social parasites is negatively associated with total colony production and the production of ant larvae and gynes. Male production was lower only in nests infested by M. teleius, whereas the number of worker pupae was significantly higher in all types of infested colonies than in uninfested colonies. Laboratory observations indicated that nests infested by Maculinea larvae are characterised by a higher number of foragers compared to uninfested nests but we did not find differences in worker survival among nest types. 4. The observed pattern of social parasite influence on colony productivity can be explained by the feeding strategies of parasitic larvae. The most negative effect was found for M. teleius, which feeds on the largest host brood and eliminates a high number of sexual forms. The strong, adverse influence of all studied parasite species on gyne production may result in low queen production in Myrmica populations exposed to these social parasites.

Eggshell pigment composition covaries with phylogeny butnot with life history or with nesting ecology traits of British passerines.

No single hypothesis is likely to explain the diversity in eggshell coloration and patterning across birds, suggesting that eggshell appearance is most likely to have evolved to fulfill many nonexclusive functions. By controlling for nonindependent phylogenetic associations between related species, we describe this diversity using museum eggshells of 71 British breeding passerine species to examine how eggshell pigment composition and concentrations vary with phylogeny and with life‐history and nesting ecology traits. Across species, concentrations of biliverdin and protoporphyrin, the two main pigments found in eggshells, were strongly and positively correlated, and both pigments strongly covaried with phylogenetic relatedness. Controlling for phylogeny, cavity‐nesting species laid eggs with lower protoporphyrin concentrations in the shell, while higher biliverdin concentrations were associated with thicker eggshells for species of all nest types. Overall, these relationships between eggshell pigment concentrations and the biology of passerines are similar to those previously found in nonpasserine eggs, and imply that phylogenetic dependence must be considered across the class in further explanations of the functional significance of avian eggshell coloration.

Biodiversity and Bird Friendly Design in Urban Areas for Sustainable Living

Background/Objectives: Birds in urban areas are indicators of biodiversity1. This paper explores ways of developing a style of architecture that provides spaces for various species of birds, as part of the built and un-built areas in cities. Methods/Statistical Analysis: The method adopted is a literature study of different types of birds' nests and a few species habitats to understand how they can be adapted and integrated in buildings. Methods to create natural habitats in urban landscaping, and to make green roofs habitable for wildlife, are studied. The threats faced by birds in urban settings leading to their mortality are studied and solutions for the same are proposed. Findings: The outcome is a set of recommendations that can be adapted and used in cities and buildings to make them inviting and also safe for vegetation and wildlife. Avoid fragmentation in city design. Cluster designs give a better solution. Open spaces can come together and they should be connected through a green network. Urban landscapes in parks, campuses, large gardens, road side avenues and medians should follow a semi rustic pattern. All new buildings and old buildings where retrofitting is possible, should have roof gardens which follow a semi rustic environment. Compound walls, Balconies, verandahs and sit outs can be provided with holes for cavity nests or hooks for pendant nests. Projecting decorative elements provide space for platform nests. Courtyards and atria with greenery can be given in buildings which are accessible to birds. Use of plain transparent and reflective glass should be avoided. They can be used with narrow patterns, netting etc. Artificial lighting in open spaces should be just enough for use, avoid light spilling, and preferably use down lighting. In a rapidly urbanizing modern world, ensuring biodiversity in cities is one of the primary responsibilities of the urban designer and the architect. Following the recommendations in the paper is a step towards this direction. Application/Improvements: In many developing countries legislation and guidelines are in effect to protect the biodiversity, but in our country they are lacking along with proper documentations regarding species diversity, mortality etc. Some of the outcome of the paper can help formulate guidelines in this direction.

Reproductive success and productivity of the Cyprus Wheatear Oenanthe cypriaca, a migratory, island endemic

Population dynamics of annually breeding bird species depend crucially on productivity, and so this variation can help us understand the causes of declines in migrant birds. We investigated variation in annual productivity 2010–2012 in the Cyprus Wheatear Oenanthe cypriaca, a small endemic migrant passerine at the National Forest Park (NFP) of Troodos. Clutch size for first nests was usually five, although 0.40 eggs lower in 2011. Nest survival did not vary with year, nesting attempt, or clutch initiation date, but was significantly higher in the chick (0.96; 0.88–0.98, 95 % CI) versus the egg stage (0.74; 0.62–0.83, 95 % CI). The number of chicks fledged from a successful nest varied with nest type—with first nests and second nests after failure being similar producing ~3–4.5 chicks dependent on year, and with second nests after success producing ~2 chicks, independent of year. There were only weak positive or negative effects of clutch initiation date dependent on year, controlling for nest type, and no effects of male age on productivity. After fledging, chicks had a >95 % chance of surviving the first month, but with a greater probability of one or rarely two chicks per brood dying if fledged later in the season. Renesting rate was significantly different in all years (26, 48, and 78 % renesting): 2010 had a much lower renesting rate after success with very few second broods (29 versus 76 % and 73 % in 2011 and 2012, respectively). Overall productivity per territory did not vary with year with 3.96 ± 0.09 SE chicks alive 1 month after fledging. Cyprus Wheatears showed several unusual breeding parameters including a highly variable renesting probability, high nestling, and very high fledgling survival, resulting in exceptionally high productivity. This may be because renesting is constrained by high mid-summer temperatures and low abundance of chick predators.

Modelling survival and breeding dispersal to unobservable nest sites

Context Demographic parameters in wildlife populations are typically estimated by monitoring a limited number of individuals in observable sites and assuming that these are representative of the whole population. If individuals permanently disperse to unobservable breeding sites, recruitment and immature survival are expected to be negatively biased and breeding-site fidelity cannot be investigated. Aims To develop a method to obtain unbiased estimated of survival, recruitment and breeding dispersal when individuals can move to, or recruit in, unobservable sites. Methods We used the flexibility of multi-event capture–recapture models to estimate dispersal and recruitment to unobservable sites, merging observations made at two sites within the same breeding locations. We illustrated the model with data on little penguin (Eudyptula minor) breeding in artificial as well as in natural nests. Natural nests are unknown or inaccessible and birds in these sites remain unobservable. Encounters at beaches surrounding the colony suggested that marked animals can permanently move to unobservable nests. We built the multi-event model considering two possible states of the individuals (alive breeding in a nest box and alive in a natural nest) and three types of observations (encountered at a nest only, encountered at the beach only and encountered at both places). This model ensured that the breeding dispersal to unobservable places became estimable. Key results Results indicate that the estimated survival was 8% higher than when recaptures at artificial nests were analysed alone. Also, fidelity to artificial nests was 12% lower than to natural nests. This might reflect the greater availability of natural sites or, alternatively, a heterogeneity between these two types of nest. Conclusions We obtained an estimate of local survival of little penguins breeding at Penguin Island that incorporates the permanent migration to unobservable sites and found an asymmetric dispersion towards natural nests. Implication Our conclusions suggest a need for more careful treatment of data derived from artificial sites alone, as demographic parameters might be underestimated if animals prefer natural breeding sites or if they are in greater proportion compared with artificial ones. The analytical approach presented can be applied to many biological systems, when animals might move into inaccessible or unobservable breeding sites.

Development and Performance of a Mechanical Egg Collection System Versus the Hand-Operated Dutch Nest

The aim of this study was to design a new mechanical nesting system based on scientific works on the behavior of laying hens, and to compare its performance with that of a hand-operated Dutch nest. The equipment was assessed in two poultry houses; in the first one, the eggs were collected manually, whereas in the second one, the newly designed mechanical nest was used for the collection. A total of 7,800 hens and 800 males were housed in each poultry house, and the percentages of eggs produced, nest dirty eggs, floor eggs, and cracked and discarded eggs were determined between weeks 25 and 52. The percentage of eggs with microcracks, infertility, embryo mortality, bacterial contamination, fungal contamination, chicks with stunting syndrome and hatching from both types of nest was assessed in the hatchery on a fortnightly basis. The mechanical nest designed herein proved to be a good alternative to the hand-operated Dutch nest, but it still has to be improved in order to have the same performance, especially with regard to reduction in the incidence of floor eggs.

Uncommon Levels of Relatedness and Parentage in a Cooperatively Breeding Bird, the Brown-Headed Nuthatch (Sitta pusilla)

Cooperatively breeding birds employ a variety of mating strategies, and we do not fully understand breeding group structure and the range of reproductive strategies used by group members. We examined group structure and parentage in a population of Brown-headed Nuthatches (Sitta pusilla). We genotyped 346 adults and nestlings banded at 59 nests using nine microsatellite loci to determine parentage and relatedness and compared the results to field observations of marked individuals from 282 nests monitored from 2006–2010. Based on field observations, 23% of nests were cooperative, and only 13% of the cooperative groups had more than one helper. Consistent with field observations, genetic analyses indicated that 83% of helpers were related to at least one parent at the nest, and that most helpers were male. Extra-group paternity appeared to be common at nests of both pairs (45%) and cooperative groups (32%, but did not differ in frequency between the two nest types. Although male helpers unrelated to the breeding female might be expected to sire offspring in cooperative groups, we did not observe this phenomenon. Instead, we found one, and possibly two, cases of incestuous breeding involving related helpers.

Eggshell Porosity Provides Insight on Evolution of Nesting in Dinosaurs.

Knowledge about the types of nests built by dinosaurs can provide insight into the evolution of nesting and reproductive behaviors among archosaurs. However, the low preservation potential of their nesting materials and nesting structures means that most information can only be gleaned indirectly through comparison with extant archosaurs. Two general nest types are recognized among living archosaurs: 1) covered nests, in which eggs are incubated while fully covered by nesting material (as in crocodylians and megapodes), and 2) open nests, in which eggs are exposed in the nest and brooded (as in most birds). Previously, dinosaur nest types had been inferred by estimating the water vapor conductance (i.e., diffusive capacity) of their eggs, based on the premise that high conductance corresponds to covered nests and low conductance to open nests. However, a lack of statistical rigor and inconsistencies in this method render its application problematic and its validity questionable. As an alternative we propose a statistically rigorous approach to infer nest type based on large datasets of eggshell porosity and egg mass compiled for over 120 extant archosaur species and 29 archosaur extinct taxa/ootaxa. The presence of a strong correlation between eggshell porosity and nest type among extant archosaurs indicates that eggshell porosity can be used as a proxy for nest type, and thus discriminant analyses can help predict nest type in extinct taxa. Our results suggest that: 1) covered nests are likely the primitive condition for dinosaurs (and probably archosaurs), and 2) open nests first evolved among non-avian theropods more derived than Lourinhanosaurus and were likely widespread in non-avian maniraptorans, well before the appearance of birds. Although taphonomic evidence suggests that basal open nesters (i.e., oviraptorosaurs and troodontids) were potentially the first dinosaurs to brood their clutches, they still partially buried their eggs in sediment. Open nests with fully exposed eggs only became widespread among Euornithes. A potential co-evolution of open nests and brooding behavior among maniraptorans may have freed theropods from the ground-based restrictions inherent to covered nests and allowed the exploitation of alternate nesting locations. These changes in nesting styles and behaviors thus may have played a role in the evolutionary success of maniraptorans (including birds).

Classification of ant nest complexes

The nest complex is an intrinsic form of spatial and functional organization of ants, a real structural level of an intrapopulation rank. The proposed classification of ant nest complexes is based on the properties of the elements composing the complexes and on scenarios of settlement development. The stages of life of an ant settlement and the stages of development of the corresponding complex are described (the proto-, meso-, and hypercomplex). The following main species-specific features are used in the classification: the basic level of intracolonial structures (clan, column, pleiad); the nest type (sectional, capsule-like); the mode of colony founding (solitary queen, pleometrosis, temporary social parasitism); the mode of sociotomy (binary division, budding, fragmentation); the definitive colony size (Nc); the presence of a defended territory; the form of polycaly (simple polycaly: PC1, polycaly with breeding nests: PC2, polysectional nests: PSN), etc. Based on the data on 120 ant species (including all the well-studied ones) showing clear differentiation into gynes and workers, eight basic social types are distinguished, which are named by their most specific traits: (1) recurrent sociotomy based on a clan; (2) diffuse polycaly; (3) recurrent sociotomy based on a single colony (column); (4) closed (ordinary) polycaly; (5) open (obligate) polycaly; (6) linear settlements; (7) dissipated pleiads; (8) unitary pleiads. The general description of an ant nest complex includes its social type, development stage, and current state. The classification of nest complexes forms the basis for systemic study, use, and protection of ants.

Relationship between Survival Rate of Avian Artificial Nests and Forest Vegetation Structure along a Tropical Altitudinal Gradient on Mount Cameroon

AbstractNest predation is assumed to be an important factor driving avian life histories. Altitudinal gradients offer valuable study systems to investigate how avian nest predation risk varies between bird populations. In this study, a hypothesis postulating an increase in avian nest survival rate with elevation as a result of decreasing predation pressure was experimentally tested along an altitudinal gradient (300‐2250 m) in West‐Central Africa. Three types of artificial nests (cup‐shrub, cup‐ground and bare‐ground) were used along the altitudinal gradient. Overall, elevation had no effect on the daily survival rate (DSR) of the artificial nests. However, there was a significant elevation‐nest type interaction. Daily survival rate for cup‐shrub nests decreased significantly with elevation, but for cup‐ground and bare‐ground nests, elevation had no significant effect. We tested the effects of the same vegetation parameters (tree density, herb and shrub layer coverage, and canopy openness) on the DSR of different nest types to understand how different vegetation layers or combinations of them affect DSR. Daily survival rate for bare‐ground nests significantly decreased with increasing canopy openness, and was positively influenced by coverage of herb layer and tree density. For cup‐shrub nests, DSR increased significantly with increasing shrub layer coverage. Finally, for cup‐ground nests, we found a positive effect of shrub coverage and canopy openness on DSR. In summary, we found that different forest vegetation layers affect predation risk of different nest types along elevations on Mt. Cameroon.

Organochlorine and mercury residues in eggs of the lesser kestrel (Falco naumanni) from a long term study in the eastern Mediterranean

Organochlorine and mercury residues were analyzed in unhatched eggs of the lesser kestrel (Falco naumanni) (2002–2012) in central Greece. Concentrations graded as ∑DDTs > ∑PCBs > HCB > ∑HCHs > ∑Chlordanes. Temporal declines were found in the concentrations of ∑DDTs, ∑HCHs and ∑Chlordanes but not in Hg, HCB and ∑PCBs. TEQs of PCBs and their degree of metabolisation showed no time trend. The reproductive parameters showed neither a temporal trend nor a significant year effect. No relationships occurred between the reproductive parameters per year and nest type (natural, artificial) with any of the contaminants analyzed except HCB influenced by year and clutch size. Low pollutant concentrations suggest that either lesser kestrels ranged across the year in unpolluted areas or may be caused by their short food chain. The low concentrations seem improbable to have affected the reproduction of these birds, although critical levels are still to be defined.

Further support for thermal ecosystem engineering by wandering albatross

AbstractOn sub-Antarctic Marion Island, wandering albatross (Diomedea exulans) nests support high abundances of tineid moth,Pringleophaga marioni, caterpillars. Previous work proposed that the birds serve as thermal ecosystem engineers by elevating nest temperatures relative to ambient, thereby promoting growth and survival of the caterpillars. However, only 17 days of temperature data were presented previously, despite year-long nest occupation by birds. Previous sampling was also restricted to old and recently failed nests, though nests from which chicks have recently fledged are key to understanding how the engineering effect is realized. Here we build on previous work by providing nest temperature data for a full year and by sampling all three nest types. For the full duration of nest occupancy, temperatures within occupied nests are significantly higher, consistently byc. 7°C, than those in surrounding soils and abandoned nests, declining noticeably when chicks fledge. Caterpillar abundance is significantly higher in new nests compared to nests from which chicks have fledged, which in turn have higher caterpillar abundances than old nests. Combined with recent information on the life history ofP. marioni, our data suggest that caterpillars are incidentally added to the nests during nest construction, and subsequently benefit from an engineering effect.

First Documentation of a “Double-Decker” Cerulean Warbler (Setophaga cerulea) Nest

ABSTRACT Construction of nests containing multiple layers or “stories” has been observed in a number of passerine species. These atypical nest structures are frequently a response to brood parasitism, wherein the host female will bury the parasite’s egg under a new layer of nesting material. They may also occur as a result of either intra- or interspecific competition for limited nest sites, with one individual usurping another’s nest and adding new material on top. However, such structures have not previously been documented in the Cerulean Warbler (Setophaga cerulea), a Neotropical migrant species that breeds in the eastern U.S. and Canada. Here, we report our observations of an unusual “double-decker” nest that was constructed in 2014 in Brown County, southern Indiana. A female Cerulean Warbler first built a typical nest, and several days later we discovered a second visibly distinct nest superimposed on top of the original one. Subsequent retrieval and inspection of the two-story nest revealed no buri...

Ecological correlates of vulnerability to fragmentation in forest birds on inundated subtropical land-bridge islands

Identifying the ecological and life-history traits that render species vulnerable to fragmentation is an important prerequisite for the development of effective conservation strategies to minimize future biodiversity losses. When determining how species traits influence vulnerability to fragmentation, however, several important confounding factors such as detectability and synergistic effects among traits are rarely considered. In this study, after controlling for these methodological shortcomings, we determined how species traits influenced fragmentation vulnerability using bird data collected from islands created by the inundation of the Thousand Island Lake, China. We obtained eight species traits from field surveys and from the literature: natural abundance, geographical range size, habitat specificity, body size, trophic level, mobility, fecundity, and nest type. After phylogenetic correction, these traits were used separately and in combination to assess their associations with the index of fragmentation vulnerability, the proportion of islands occupied. Inclusion of detectability in analysis resulted in considerable increases in overall island occupancy for all species in general and for cryptic species in particular. Accounting for detectability altered the rank of best models and thus influenced the identification of the relationships between species traits and fragmentation vulnerability. We found synergistic interactions between natural abundance and habitat specificity. Our findings highlight the importance of incorporating detectability and synergistic effects among traits into future studies. From a conservation perspective, our results suggest that we should give priority conservation efforts to rare species with low natural abundance and high habitat specificity.

Oribatid mites (Acari: oribatida) of nests of small mammals in Transcarpatia

This article discusses the different aspects of the fauna and diversity of oribatid of nests of small mammals in Transcarpathia. Dominant species of oribatid mites and their seasonal occurrence are defined. Aspects of occurrence of these microarthropods in the nests of small mammals of different types of nests are also studied. Not less attention it is given to their distribution in different altitudinal zones on study area