Terai Of Nepal Research Articles

Adoption of improved wheat varieties in eastern and western Terai of Nepal

The research was conducted from March to May 2019 for assessment on adoption of improved wheat varieties in two major wheat growing districts of Nepal, Sunsari, and Kailali; one representing eastern and another western Terai. A pre-tested interview schedule was used to collect the primary information; in addition, two Key Informant Surveys were performed. Furthermore, relevant literatures were reviewed for secondary information. The simple random method of sampling was used within the selected areas that were identified in consultation with Agriculture Knowledge Centre and agricultural officials of the local government. Altogether, 194 samples were taken for the purpose of the study, omitting the outliers and incomplete responses. Descriptive statistics, probit regression, and indexing were used for data analysis. Probit econometric model revealed that membership dummy (1% level), age (1% level) number of family members involved in agriculture (1% level), subsidy dummy (5% level), number of schooling years (5%) and loan dummy (10% level) significantly determined the adoption of improved wheat varieties developed after NARC establishment. Furthermore, indexing identified- lack of availability of quality improved seeds (I= 0.80) as the major problem associated with the wheat production followed by poor availability of fertilizers (0.77), labour shortage (0.57), lack of proper irrigation (0.46) and lack of agricultural machines (0.39). The government agricultural institutions should assure access to quality seeds and fertilizers to the farmers; in addition, subsidy on irrigation and agricultural machines allied with agricultural loan to the educated youths could be the point of attraction for wheat cultivation which leads to increased wheat productivity.

Perceptions of Local Environmental Issues and the Relevance of Climate Change in Nepal's Terai: Perspectives From Two Communities.

The direct and indirect impacts of global climate change entail serious consequences for global biophysical and social systems, including the health, well-being and sustainability of communities. These impacts are especially serious for vulnerable groups in economically developing societies. While climate change is a global phenomenon, it is at the local level that impacts are most felt, and from where responses to climate change are enacted. It is increasingly urgent that communities possess the capacity to respond to climate change, now and in the future. Community representations of climate-relevant issues are critical to underpinning responses. Environmental representations do not directly reflect actual physical conditions but are interpreted through social and cultural layers of understanding that shape environmental issues. This paper investigates environmental and climate-relevant perceptions within two communities in the Terai region of Nepal; the city of Bharatpur and the village of Kumroj in Chitwan Province. Following mixed findings on levels of climate change awareness in Nepal, we set out to explore perspectives on the environment and climate change awareness by conducting 30 qualitative interviews with local people. The study found that issues linked to sanitation and cleanliness were most important in both communities, while reports of temperature and weather changes were less common and typically linked to local causes rather than climate change. Imagined futures were also closely related to current environmental issues affecting communities and did not discuss climate change, though temperature and weather changes were anticipated. However, when talk of climate change was deliberately elicited, participants displayed their awareness, though this was rarely linked to local conditions. We conclude that, in light of other pressing local issues, climate change is yet to penetrate the environmental representations of some communities and there is a need to address the disconnect between local issues and global climate change. Making climate change relevant at the local level by connecting to salient local issues and co-benefits comprises an important step in bridging the gap between more global awareness and its relevance more locally, particularly for communities at risk.

Energy balance and environmental impacts of rice and wheat production: A case study in Nepal

Energy and environment are the key concerns in todays’ agriculture. This study investigated energy balance and environmental impact of rice and wheat production systems in terms of energy ratio, impact of energy inputs to the crop yield and CO2e (carbon dioxide equivalent) emissions under terai and hill geographical regions of Nepal. Primary data were collected from 139 randomly selected farms by using structured questionnaire. The results revealed that the total energy consumption in rice and wheat production were 9.70 GJ/hm2 (terai) to 11.78 GJ/hm2 (hill) and 8.40 GJ/hm2 (hill) to 10.95 GJ/hm2 (terai), respectively. The energy balance of rice and wheat production were found 46.33 GJ/hm2 (hill) to 59.29 GJ/hm2 (terai) and 27.14 GJ/hm2 (terai) to 38.52 GJ/hm2 (hill), respectively, where energy use efficiency in terai and hill were found to be 7.14 and 4.97 in rice, and 3.49 and 5.59 in wheat, respectively. The contribution of fertilizer on impacts was significant among other energy inputs in rice and wheat production in both geographical regions. The CO2e emissions from rice and wheat were higher by 52% and 78% in hill as compared to respective crop rice (1786 kg CO2e/hm2) and wheat (843 kg CO2e/hm2) in terai. This study showed that rice production system in terai is more energy and environmentally efficient, whilst wheat production in hill is more energy efficient. Keywords: energy indices, environmental impact, productivity, profitability, GHG emissions, rice, wheat, sensitivity analysis DOI: 10.25165/j.ijabe.20191201.3270 Citation: Pokhrel A, Soni P. Energy balance and environmental impacts of rice and wheat production: A case study in Nepal. Int J Agric & Biol Eng, 2019; 12(1): 201–207.

Analysis of Socio-economic Factors and Profitability of Hybrid Maize Production in Eastern Terai of Nepal

The study was conducted to analyze the socioeconomic factors and profitability of hybrid maize production in eastern Nepal. A household survey was conducted from March to April, 2017 in two districts Morang and Sunsari to collect information on socioeconomic characteristics and economics of maize production. The Structured questionnaire was administered to 98 randomly selected households from two districts i.e. 41 from Morang and 57 from Sunsari district. Descriptive and statistical tools including multiple regression model were used to analyze the data. The multiple regression model showed that larger the maize area, higher the education of household head and households who received maize farming related training were significant and positive towards maize output. Farmers of Morang district have higher maize production than Sunsari district. The benefit-cost ratio (1.7) indicates that hybrid maize farming was profitable with productivity of 6.9 ton per hectare. Despite the importance of maize crop to household income, many constraints were reported in its productivity including lack of irrigation, a high cost of inputs and the incidence of pests and diseases. Ensuring access to irrigation, training on maize farming, mechanization and efficient extension services were recommended to increase hybrid maize production in eastern Nepal.

Energy balance and environmental impacts of rice and wheat production: A case study in Nepal

Energy and environment are the key concerns in todays’ agriculture. This study investigated energy balance and environmental impact of rice and wheat production systems in terms of energy ratio, impact of energy inputs to the crop yield and CO2e (carbon dioxide equivalent) emissions under terai and hill geographical regions of Nepal. Primary data were collected from 139 randomly selected farms by using structured questionnaire. The results revealed that the total energy consumption in rice and wheat production were 9.70 GJ/hm2 (terai) to 11.78 GJ/hm2 (hill) and 8.40 GJ/hm2 (hill) to 10.95 GJ/hm2 (terai), respectively. The energy balance of rice and wheat production were found 46.33 GJ/hm2 (hill) to 59.29 GJ/hm2 (terai) and 27.14 GJ/hm2 (terai) to 38.52 GJ/hm2 (hill), respectively, where energy use efficiency in terai and hill were found to be 7.14 and 4.97 in rice, and 3.49 and 5.59 in wheat, respectively. The contribution of fertilizer on impacts was significant among other energy inputs in rice and wheat production in both geographical regions. The CO2e emissions from rice and wheat were higher by 52% and 78% in hill as compared to respective crop rice (1786 kg CO2e/hm2) and wheat (843 kg CO2e/hm2) in terai. This study showed that rice production system in terai is more energy and environmentally efficient, whilst wheat production in hill is more energy efficient. Keywords: energy indices, environmental impact, productivity, profitability, GHG emissions, rice, wheat, sensitivity analysis DOI: 10.25165/j.ijabe.20191201.3270 Citation: Pokhrel A, Soni P. Energy balance and environmental impacts of rice and wheat production: A case study in Nepal. Int J Agric & Biol Eng, 2019; 12(1): 201–207.

Geographical Distribution of South American Tomato Leaf Miner Tuta absoluta (Meyrick, 1917) (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae) in Nepal

South American tomato leaf miner, Tuta absoluta (Meyrick, 1917) (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae) is an invasive insect pest of tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Miller) both in field and controlled environment conditions. T. absoluta is native to South America, it was detected first time in Nepal from Kathmandu during May, 2016. Survey was conducted at 46 locations of 31 districts in terai and mid hills of Nepal during February to June 2018. T. absoluta was detected from 45 locations of 30 districts surveyed. T. absoluta which was detected from Kathmandu, Lalitpur, Bhaktapur, Kavre and Dhading districts in 2016 has now been spread into 33 districts across the Nepal. Apart from 33 districts T. absoluta might be present in other districts which were not surveyed during the study. Farmers generally manage T. absoluta through indiscriminate use of chemical pesticides. So, extensive research is needed in future to develop integrated pest management technique which is suitable and sustainable for its management in Nepalese context.

Welfare Status of Indigenous Cattle in Terai and Mid-Hill of Nepal

The aim of present study was to assess the status of welfare of indigenous cattle, based on certain animal-linked parameters: body condition (BCS), body hygiene (cleanliness), lameness, skin injuries, general condition, and flight distance. The study was ruled in eight herds (10 cows /herd) in Terai and Mid-hill region of Nepal from March to June 2014. Altogether 80 cattle kept in semi-intensive system were assessed using several indicators determined through specific methods. Out of 80 cattle, 2 (2.5%) had BCS between 1.5-2, considered as very thin cows; 49 (61.25%) had BCS between 2.25-2.75, considered as thin cows; 29 (36.25%) had BCS 3-3.75 considered as normal cows and no cows found with BCS more than 3.75 score; 69 (86.25%) had dung particles at their lower legs, 60 (75%) had dung particles at their flank region and 11(13.75%) had dung particles at their udder region; 4 (5%) were moderately lame, 27 (33.75%) had hairless spot on their different body parts(hock, knee joints, neck), 15 (18.75%) had swelling joints (knee joints); 10 (12.5%) showed fear at the observer’s approach. The general condition was good of all the assessed cows. The obtained results indicate that more than half of the assessed cows are thin and dirty which has a negative impact on their health and welfare. The main factors that affect the indigenous cattle welfare in Nepal are insufficiency of feeding, poor housing system, poor sanitation and hygiene maintenance, lack of treatment of injured/diseased cattle and somewhat poor human animal relationship.

A Comparative Study of Productivity in Self-Governed and Jointly-Governed Irrigation System in Inner Terai of Nepal

Government of Nepal has declared irrigation as one of the leading programs for the agriculture development. Though Nepal has abundant water resources, water available for sound irrigation is still scarce. In the absence of well-organized water governance mechanisms, adequacy, fairness and reliability of water and sustainability of operation and maintenance, crop productivity remain low. This is not properly happening as most of the farmers have inadequate irrigation, inputs, technology, low education status, subsistence oriented farming, marginal farmers, low farm income, low purchasing power and poor health. The crop cultivation more than one time in a year has its positive relationship with cropping intensity and vice versa in the study area. Hence, households need to be getting up and encouraged towards year round irrigation that produce different types of the crops in different seasons and ultimately backs up in cropping intensity as well as productivity. The crop production is fluctuated widely as a result of the amount of water available as well as weather conditions. Despite the higher yield of spring paddy, the cropped area is constrained due to limit water availability in spring season.

Determination of Indigenous Nutrient Supplying Capacity of Soil Through Omission Plot Experiment for Wheat in Western Terai of Nepal

The field experiment was conducted to estimate the native nutrient supplying capacity of soil in western terai of Nepal during 2013/14 and 2014/15. The experimental site consisted three areas: Pakadi VDC ward no.-3, Barrohiya of Kapilvastu district; Ramgram municipality ward no.-1, Sanda of Nawalparasi district and Tukuligadh VDC ward no.-1, Rehara of Rupandehi district. The indigenous nutrients supplying capacity of the soil was determined by establishing omission plots for wheat cultivation with six treatments each of 50 m2 and 4 farmers from each site was taken assuming one farmer as one replication. Among the six treatments, -N, -P, -K, –Zn and –B were set to estimate the inherent N, P, K, Zn and B supplying capacity of soil respectively. From two years of experiment, it has been clear that inherent N and K supplying capacity of soil in selected areas is very low. The highest grain yield of 3.33 t/ha and 2.75 t/ha was measured from fully fertilized plots in 2013/14 and 2014/15 respectively and the lowest grain yield of wheat was obtained from nitrogen missing plots in both years (1.74 t/ha and 1.51 ton/ha) followed by potassium missing plots (1.74t/ha). Farmers manage their field in a different way, so large variation was seen even in small area. Nitrogen was found to be most limiting nutrient for wheat growth followed by potassium and phosphorous in all sites. Therefore, use of optimum dose of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium should be used for efficient nutrient uptake which ultimately increases wheat productivity.

Natural regeneration potential and growth of degraded Shorea robusta Gaert n.f. forest in Terai region of Nepal

Sal (Shorea robusta ) has ecological, economical and socio-cultural importance. It is a dominant species in the Terai and Chure region of Nepal. Natural regeneration is the only relevant regeneration method for Sal in Nepal. This study intended to assess natural regeneration potential of Sal in ploughed and unploughed (control) sites. The study was carried out in Chetaradei of Kapilvastu district in an area of 4.79 ha. Two treatments (control and ground work i.e. ploughed) were applied to assess regeneration potential of Sal. The radius of the sample plots was 2 m, which were laid out systematically and the data were recorded from these plots in three consecutive years. Regeneration density was found higher in control site than ploughed site. T-test for regeneration density in three consecutive measurements showed that there was no significant difference between ploughed and unploughed conditions. The species composition was dominated by Sal in both ploughed and unploughed sites. Species diversity (Shannon Weiner) index was found higher in ploughed site than unploughed site in three consecutive measurements. Moreover, T-test showed that mean height of Sal was not significant in both ploughed and unploughed sites except in the first measurement. This study shows that protection from grazing and fire is essential for natural regeneration of Sal. However, ground work helps to increase tree species diversity but it is not necessary in degraded Sal forest.Banko JanakariA Journal of Forestry Information for NepalVol. 28, No. 1, 2018, page: 3-10

Lessons for promotion of new agricultural technology: a case of Vijay wheat variety in Nepal

BackgroundWheat is the third important cereal after rice and maize in Nepal. Its yield suffers from several factors such as lack of reliable irrigation, inclement weather, incidence of disease and lack of improved technology. New virulence race Ug99 (Uganda-99) has threatened all available commercial wheat varieties around the world and Asia. Some of the popular varieties of wheat in Nepal are also getting susceptible to different diseases. Vijay is one of the recently released first Ug99-resistant improved wheat varieties for Terai region in Nepal. Nepal has put special emphasis on the seed production and diffusion of this variety to promote rapidly in the farmers’ fields to mitigate the potential epidemics of newly emerging pathotype of stem rust (Ug99). This variety is being promoted by several organizations and seed companies’ before and after its release. Therefore, this study was undertaken to know the seed supply of Vijay and identify the factors that are contributing for its commercialization.MethodsSunsari, Morang, Rupandehi, Banke and Kailali districts were selected purposely representing Eastern, Western, Mid-western and Far-Western Terai regions of Nepal, respectively. Seed companies, agro-vets (input dealers) and cooperatives involved in Vijay seed multiplication and distribution in the respective districts were selected for the purpose of the study. From the list of agro-vets in respective study sites, a total of 87 wheat seed selling agro-vets were selected randomly as a sample. The sample survey covered 44% of the target population in both categories (dealers and non-dealers of national seed company). Out of total samples, 40% were national seed company dealer agro-vets, while 60% were non-dealers. Multivariate regression analysis was used to find out different factors responsible for commercialization of Vijay seed.ResultsResults indicate that about 67% of the agro-vets were involved in Vijay seed trading and their average time of involvement was 2.65 years. Majority of the agro-vets perceived this variety performed better than other existing popular varieties such as Gautam, Bhrikuti, Aditya and Nepal 297. However, there was still gap in timely supply of the seed. Based on the estimated Certified-1 seed production in 2015/16, Vijay must cover 56.88% (11,943 ha) of total wheat area in Terai, but share of Vijay seed was about 22% of the total wheat seed sold by agro-vets in 2015/16. Nevertheless, it seems that this variety is getting popular in the study area compared to other improved wheat varieties in short time period. The factors influencing commercialization of Vijay were: agro-vets having dealership of national seed company, perception on comparative better performance of Vijay with Nepal 297, total quantity of wheat seed sold by agro-vets and total business transaction of the agro-vets. Moreover, other factors such as pre-release multiplication of Vijay variety by private seed companies and participation on seed related training have found positive contribution on its commercialization.ConclusionIt seems that the current production of Vijay’s breeder seed is more than enough to cultivate in total wheat area in Terai of Nepal if proper seed cycle is maintained. But this is not in reality. NARC should decentralized foundation seed to private actors such as private seed companies, national seed companies and community-based organizations to maximize the resource use efficiency in the seed cycle through introducing effective monitoring and technical backstopping mechanism from public sector. Therefore, the close coordination and commitment of the public and private seed companies, community seed groups, cooperatives and public extension agencies to multiply seeds in subsequent cycles is required. Moreover, awareness program about superiority of Vijay with other improved wheat varieties should be emphasized for the rapid commercialization of the Vijay seed which would be an instrumental to mitigate the potential epidemics of newly emerging pathotype of stem rust (Ug99) in the future.

Fruit set, fruit retention and yield of chilli genotypes under hot and dry condition of western terai of Nepal

Thirteen selected chilli genotypes were evaluated in randomized completely block design with three replications to study the flowering, fruit set and yield potential during spring-summer of 2005 at Khajura, Banke (Western terai district of Nepal). High temperature, long drought period and hot wind blow during flowering and fruiting period severely affected the fruit set and fruit size. Only 18.81% flowers set fruits while 72.41% of set fruits reached to marketable size (harvesting). Wide variations observed in yield potential of the genotypes ranging total fruit number per plant from 6 to 71 and in total fruit yield 7.97 to 95.33 q/ha. The genotype Mr. Lee No. 3 Selex produced maximum marketable fresh fruit yield (90.69 q/ha) which was 234.5% higher than that of Jwala (standard check) with 50.57% fruit set and 74.93% fruit retention. One fruit per plant was 0.63 and 0.52 coefficient of fruit set (%) and fruit retention (%) respectively. Highly significant coefficient of determination (R2=0.86) of the product of fruit number per plant and 100 fruit weight (g) against fresh fruit yield (q/ha) showed that chilli genotypes yield can be predicted considering fruit number per plant and fruit weight in hot and dry summer condition.Journal of the Institute of Agriculture and Animal Science.Vol. 33-34, 2015, page: 229-236

Farmers’ perception on role of cooperatives in agriculture practices of major cereal crops in western terai of Nepal

A survey research was carried out in Devdaha V.D.C. and Manpakadi V.D.C of Rupandehi District with the aim to investigate the impact of cooperatives on the farming methods and the socioeconomic status of the farmers. The duration of our research was from January to June 2015. The Purposive Random Sampling wasdone where 80 Household (Sample Size) were selected for our survey i.e., 40 among them were involved in Cooperative and 40 were not. A comparative analysis was done to find the differences between cooperative and non- cooperative farmers. There were differences in various socio-economic aspects like Age, Education, ethnicity, training and subsidy, mechanization, among the cooperative and non-cooperative farmers. Significant impact was found on the farming practices, marketing status and socioeconomic condition among two different groups of farmers. Farmers involved in cooperatives were observed to perform comparatively improved farming practices which were due to accessibility of Farm Inputs and subsidy. Thus it could be concluded that there was significant impact of agricultural cooperative in the farming practices making positive changes on the livelihood of the farmers involved in cooperatives.Journal of the Institute of Agriculture and Animal Science.Vol. 33-34, 2015, page: 177-186

Assessment of soil fertility management practices of wheat in western terai of Nepal

A study was conducted to assess the soil fertility management practices and their constraints in sixty households of western terai of Nepal namely Barrohiya (Kapilvastu), Rehara (Rupandehi) and Sanda (Nawalparasi) in 2013 by using simple random sampling techniques. A semi-structured interview schedule was used for the collection of the data. Eighty percent of the interviewed farmers had medium land holding size (7.5 to 82 Katha). Most of the land was irrigated (>81 percent) and medium upland type (53.48 percent). Farmers in those areas weren’t practicing green manuring but were habituated to incorporate legumes (pea, lentil, black gram, beans, etc.). Chemical fertilizer was the main source of nutrient (56 percent) for wheat crop. Urea and DAP were commonly used by farmers whereas MoP was rarely used. Farmers of Kapilvastu applied the highest amount of Urea (165 Kg/ha) where as the amount of DAP (116.9 kg/ha) and MoP (27.8 Kg/ha) used was more in Nawalparasi than other two in wheat crop. On an average the farmers applied 13.3 kg/ha MoP which is very low as compared to recommended dose (41.7 kg/ha). There were number of constraints and obstacles perceived by the farmers. Arrangement must be made on those areas for time availability of fertilizers and farmers must be made aware about adequate use of quality chemical fertilizers and proper soil nutrient management.Journal of the Institute of Agriculture and Animal Science. Vol. 33-34, 2015, page: 105-114

Complexities in accessing REDD+ benefits in community forestry: evidence from Nepal's Terai region

The objectives of Reducing Emission from Deforestation and Forest Degradation, forest conservation, sustainable management of forests and enhancement of carbon stocks (REDD ) can be achieved if communities are actively involved in and benefit from forest resource management. The study examined factors affecting justice in REDD benefit sharing in community forestry in Nepal's Terai region. The most influential factors identified were the economic status of forest users, the decision-making process, conflicting issues within the community and the accountability of local leaders. Poor people are highly dependent on forest resources, while the rich benefit comparatively more from their control over decision-making structures. Rich people participate less in community development work but more in the decision-making mechanism in community forestry. The poorer representation of disadvantaged forest users in decision-making limits their influence on the accountability of the authorities to local needs. Democratically elected and accountable leadership creates opportunity for justice in REDD benefit sharing among users. Accountability towards poor and disadvantaged people could be improved by developing the leadership skills of the poor and disadvantaged forest users at local level. The factors described in the study affect justice in benefit sharing, and have policy implication for the success of REDD both at the local and regional level.

Modeling taper and volume of Sal (Shorea robusta Gaertn. f.) trees in the western Terai region of Nepal

Volume and taper equations are used for estimating timber volume and biomass of a tree. Despite their usefulness, precise and site specific equations are still lacking for commercially important tree species in Nepal. The study was carried out at Chandak Chatiya Mahila Community Forest in Bardia district and Lumbini Collaborative Forest of Saljhandi in Rupandehi district in western Terai of Nepal. A destructive sampling method was used and selected fifteen Sal trees (Shorea robusta Gaertn. f.) from Saljhandi (site 1) and eighteen trees from Bagnaha (site 2) randomly to calibrate an individual tree volume and a stem taper function. At first, a non-linear stem taper function was calibrated using stem diameters outside bark at different heights above ground as response variable and D (diameter at breast height), H (total height), h (height of interest) as predictors. Then, effect of crown characteristics on stem taper was evaluated. As stem HCB (height to crown base) was found to affect stem taper, its usefulness in existing stem volume equation was tested. Empirical relationships between V (stem volume) as a response variable and D, H, HCB and sites in Bardia and Rupandehi districts as predictors were established using a linear mixed modeling approach. Our result showed that, instead of H, use of HCB in stem volume equation increased model prediction accuracy and reduced prediction bias. Applicability of the suggested models for predicting individual S. robusta tree volume and stem taper is discussed. Banko JanakariA Journal of Forestry Information for Nepal Special Issue No. 4, 2018, Page: 76-83

Ecological and economical sustainability assessment of community forest management in Nepal: A reality check

ABSTRACTThis study analyzes the sustainability of community forest management, representing four forest types of two physiographic region Hills and Terai of Nepal. We assess the sustainability based on species composition, stand density, growing stock volume, and growth-to-removal ratio using inventory data of 109 permanent forest plots from four consecutive intervals of three to five years. In addition, forest users, forest committee members, and forest officials were consulted. We observed increment on the representation of economically valuable tree species in all forest types of both regions. The pole-size tree dominates in all forest types with declining number of trees and regeneration. In case of Hills forests, they were over-harvested until 2013 but were under-harvested in the recent period. In contrary, forests were under-harvested in the Terai. We found that ecological objectives of sustainable management are fully achieved while economic benefits remained unharnessed where harvesting is far below the growth. We conclude that maintaining a large number of trees may contribute to ecological but not on economical sustainability. We argue to rationalize annual harvest in all categories of the forest to enhance resource conditions together with regular benefits to the local communities.

Climatic variations and de-coupling between arsenic and iron in arsenic contaminated ground water in the lowlands of Nepal

As widely known, in several countries in South East Asia, arsenic concentrations in ground water extracted from Quaternary alluvial sediments frequently exceed the World Health Organization (WHO) drinking water guideline of 10 μg/L. The broadly accepted hypothesis states that reductive dissolution of Fe-bearing minerals releases As-oxyanions contained within these minerals. According to the results presented in this article, As and Fe concentrations in ground water in the lowlands (Terai) of Nepal are highly variable as a function of location and there is a de-coupling of As and Fe concentrations resulting in a loss of correlation between these two elements. The mean concentrations of As and of Fe in 35 wells were slightly higher in the post-monsoon than in the pre-monsoon season. Even though As is mainly associated with iron(hydr)oxides, a substantial portion of As and Fe can be retained by clay minerals (including micas). During pre-monsoon (dry season) clayey sediments are chemically weathered losing Na and K thus remaining relatively enriched in less mobile elements such as Fe and Al. As long as reducing conditions persist, As remains relatively mobile. This article includes a detailed discussion referring to the very weak correlation or decoupling between aqueous As and Fe in the ground water and addresses possible consequences for water treatment. It sheds light on the original reservoir of arsenic being incorporated and released from clay minerals as well as from iron(hydr)oxides.

Increasing productivity of an intensive rice based system through site specific nutrient management in Western Terai of Nepal

Improving nutrient management through site specific nutrient management (SSNM) can increase grain yield and maintain appropriate yield attributes per unit of fertilizer applied through harmonized uptake, utilization and metabolism of major nutrients. On-farm experiments were conducted from 2011-2013 at Sunawal, Nawalparasi. SSNM dose was calculated by accounting for indigenous nutrient supply, yield goal, nutrient demand and fertilizer efficiency. SSNM decreased nitrogen and phosphorus application by 4 and 28% while demanded 80% more potassium and increased grain yield by 6% over recommended practice. As compared to the farmers fertility management practice (FFP), SSNM increased grain yield by 35%. Reducing 25% of SSNM dose was equally effective as recommended practice of nutrient application. Only improving the potassium application (+32 kg ha-1) on FFP, yield was increased by 17%. Leaf color charts (LCC) improve nitrogen management and proved as crucial component of SSNM as 0.3 t ha-1 more yield over three split nitrogen applications of SSNM dose.

Adoption and Maintenance of Self Seed Sufficiency in Major Cereal Crops in Mid-Western Terai of Nepal

Regional Agricultural Research Station Nepalgunj (RARS/N) has its four major outreach sites in Satbariya Village Development Committee (VDC) of Dang, Betahani VDC of Banke, Mahammadpur VDC of Bardiya, Patharaiya VDC of of Kailali and model village in Mainapokhar VDC of Bardiya district for test and verify the acceptance of new released varieties under farmers' field condition and provide an opportunity to the farmers to select most suitable variety on their own choice based on performance. Seed was distributed throughout the OR sites and model village for newly released varieties for self seed sufficiency. New most recent varieties of rice and wheat released in the previous year from concerned commodity research programme, National Rice Research Programme (NRRP), Hardinath and National Whear Research Programme (NWRP), Bhairawaha respectively, were selected. The yield attributing characters, total yield, percentage yield used as seed in the next fiscal year were recorded. Response of the participating farmers for various varieties with respect to various attributes of yield and other important criteria for sustainable cultivation were recorded in individual sheet. Agronomic management practices were done according to recommendation practices for particular crop. Rice varieties of Sukkha series adoption rate was increasing trend. Among them Sukkha Dhan 1, Sukkha Dhan 2 and Sukkha Dhan 3 adoption rate was higher. Wheat variety Gautam adoption rate was higher followed by NL 971.Int. J. Appl. Sci. Biotechnol. Vol 6(1): 38-44