Neolithic Societies Research Articles

Transition from Swifterbant to Funnelbeaker: A Bayesian Chronological Model

Abstract The transition from the late Swifterbant culture to the first appearance of the Funnelbeaker Westgroup raises numerous questions, from cultural discontinuities to gradual transitions. This process describes the transformation from a late mesolithic of hunter‐gatherer societies to a fully neolithic society in Northwestern Europe. The Early Neolithic in this area marks a technological and sociocultural transition zone, which we can identify. Although the first megalithic buildings of the Funnelbeaker Culture were erected around 3600 BC, Swifterbant sites and findings can still be traced. Many studies assume a hiatus between these phases, which is based on a research‐historical but also a conservation‐related problem. With this contribution, we attempt to generate a chronological Bayesian model on the basis of absolute chronological data. The aim is to compare the numerous available radiocarbon data from different periods in one overview. It is a model to visualize discontinuities or overlaps of the currently available data. It becomes apparent that there is a slide overlap between the archaeologically defined chronological phases. This model serves as a basis for further discussion and chronological models.

Chronology Issues of the Neolithic Cultures in the Volga-Kama Basin

In the article, the questions of the chronology of the Neolithic cultures in the Volga-Kama basin are discussed. This discussion is based on the significant series of radiocarbon dates obtained on the different organic materials in several last years. The dates were obtained as tradition scintillation technique, as well as AMS method. There was established the different age of cultural complexes on the same site and the time of transition from early to later Neolithic was determined in the Northern Cis-Caspian region. The beginning of the early Neolithic and the final of the later stage were clarified. The Neo-Eneolithic period in the Lower Volga region has been verified. The frameworks of the Early Neolithic and coexistence of Mesolithic and Neolithic societies in the forest-steppe zone of the Volga region were considered. The low border of the Neolithic period in the forest zone of the Middle Volga region was established. In the Cis-Kama region, the chronological frameworks of the Kamskaya culture were determined and the chronological ratio between complexes of unornamented, pricked and combed ornamented ceramics were explained.

Holocene resource exploitation along the Nile: diet and subsistence strategies of Mesolithic and Neolithic societies at Khor Shambat 1, Sudan

The subsistence practices of Holocene communities living in the Nile Valley of Central Sudan are comparatively little known. Recent excavations at Khor Shambat, Sudan, have yielded well-defined Mesolithic and Neolithic stratigraphy. Here, for the first time, archaeozoological, palaeobotanical, phytolith and dental calculus studies are combined with lipid residue analysis of around 100 pottery fragments and comparative analysis of faunal remains and organic residues. This holistic approach provides valuable information on changes in adaptation strategies, from Mesolithic hunter-gatherers to Neolithic herders exploiting domesticates. A unique picture is revealed of the natural environment and human subsistence, demonstrating the potential wider value of combining multiple methods.

DEPICTING TRYPILLIA: THE EMERGENCE AND DECLINE OF REALISTIC STYLE

This study, once again, raises the question on the driving forces of stylistic development. For that, we focused on two prehistoric contexts, more specifically on Trypillia and the Late Neolithic site Vinča-Belo Brdo where we analyzed various objects with «realistic» images.
 For Trypillia, we included the following categories: house models, sledge models, depictions of equipment for animal use on zoomorphic objects (figurines, vessels etc.), «realistic modelled» faces of anthropomorphic figures, and depictions on anthropomorphic figurines (hairstyles and accessories for hair, necklaces, footwear and clothes). Based on the latest findings on chronology, we trace the mentioned realistic features in time and space by means of quantifications and mapping. Additionally, we investigate the changes of anthropomorphic figurines in terms of size.
 In the case study of Vinča, the frequency of realistic features in the different depths of the tell stratigraphy are put in relation to the total number of figurines and the historical dynamics of the late Neolithic societies.
 The consideration of different material categories shows that objects with «realistic» characteristics mainly occur in certain periods and geographical regions that are characterized by specific historical developments. These include high population densities in large agglomerated settlements, increased innovativeness, intensive interaction in densified far-reaching communication and exchange networks.
 In both case studies, the developments ended in fundamental crises and were associated with the disintegration of large settlements and population decline. Linked to this, some types of «realistic» objects disappear, others become fewer and lose their «realistic» characteristics.

Ancient genomes provide insights into family structure and the heredity of social status in the early Bronze Age of southeastern Europe

Twenty-four palaeogenomes from Mokrin, a major Early Bronze Age necropolis in southeastern Europe, were sequenced to analyse kinship between individuals and to better understand prehistoric social organization. 15 investigated individuals were involved in genetic relationships of varying degrees. The Mokrin sample resembles a genetically unstructured population, suggesting that the community’s social hierarchies were not accompanied by strict marriage barriers. We find evidence for female exogamy but no indications for strict patrilocality. Individual status differences at Mokrin, as indicated by grave goods, support the inference that females could inherit status, but could not transmit status to all their sons. We further show that sons had the possibility to acquire status during their lifetimes, but not necessarily to inherit it. Taken together, these findings suggest that Southeastern Europe in the Early Bronze Age had a significantly different family and social structure than Late Neolithic and Early Bronze Age societies of Central Europe.

Local trend of symbolism at the dawn of the Neolithic: The painted bone plaquettes from PPNA Körtiktepe, Southeast Turkey

The PPNA site of Körtiktepe in the Upper Tigris Basin yielded one of the richest Pre-Pottery Neolithic assemblages in Western Asia. The site also stands among a few key Epipalaeolithic–Neolithic transitional centers that played vital roles in the origin and evolution of Neolithic symbolism in Upper Mesopotamia. The site was occupied from the second half of the 11th millennium BCE, and throughout much of the 10th millennium BCE the sedentary hunter-gatherers at Körtiktepe engaged in a socio-symbolic organization with elaborate funerary practice and extensive manufacture of symbolic artifacts, including figurative plaquettes, engraved stone vessels, incised shaft straighteners with elaborate designs, scepters, and large assemblages of beads, mostly unearthed from c2000 intra-site burials. No other PPN site has yielded such an extensive number of burial remains and grave goods. Here, we present a group of painted bone plaquettes displaying morphological features and some imagery so far not seen at any other Pre-Pottery Neolithic site in Western Asia. Assessing the specimens in light of the wider symbolic practices among the first Neolithic societies, we argue that Körtiktepe was an important center of symbolic trend at the dawn of the Neolithic in the Upper Tigris Basin.

Breaking continuity? Site formation and temporal depth at Çatalhöyük and Tell Sabi Abyad

AbstractSpatial continuity of the house is often seen as crucial in providing temporal depth for the Neolithic societies of southwest Asia. While an emphasis on the creation of such continuities is evinced at densely agglomerated sites, other sites are characterised by dispersal and frequent relocation of habitation. Çatalhöyük (Turkey) and Tell Sabi Abyad (Syria) appear to be at either end of this spectrum. However, recently found evidence and reinterpretation of older evidence call into question the apparently stark distinction between the two sites. The purpose of this paper is to compare aspects of the archaeological evidence from Tell Sabi Abyad and Çatalhöyük, and in doing so to understand the different ways in which site formation and social continuity were achieved. In particular, the presence of breaks in spatial continuities – an often overlooked aspect of site formation – and its implications are discussed. It appears that at these two sites both continuity and breaks gave form and meaning to the settlements and to the societies that inhabited them. We argue that social continuities and anchors to the past can be constructed in many variable ways, and that direct spatial continuity of the house is but one.

ON THE POSSIBLE ROLE OF MIGRATION PROCESS IN SHAPING THE AZOV-DNIEPER CULTURE

The emergence of new techniques and technologies has always been one of the main issue of discussion in archaeology. Especially in the case of innovations introduced from outside rather than development of the local tradition. Was it the result of migrations or was it just the transmission of «fashion trends»? Were environmental changes the cause of their spread, and if so, which exactly were? In 2019, the author continued excavations the single-layer site Chapayevka in the Azov Sea region. The results of excavations confirmed the emergence of a completely different population in the region in the early 6th Mill. BC, which is radically different from the local Late Mesolithic and Early Neolithic societies. Previously, this group has never been considered separately. In the literature, it is customary to refer them to the earliest period of the AzovDnieper culture. Nevertheless, the uniqueness of the materials allowed us to assume the presence of migration movements at the beginning of the 6th Mill BC. It was realy newcomer population who left the Chapaevka type sites and later, as a result of mixing (or maybe giffusion) with the local residents, the Azov-Dnieper culture in its classical form was formed. According to radiocarbon dating, in the Northern Pontic Region comb-ornamented pottery appeared in quantities at the beginning of the 6th mill. BC. Around the same time, impresso ware appeared in the European continent (Thessaly, Adriatic, Southeast Balkans etc.). The most likely cause event triggered the spread of early farmers, by different routes out of West Asia and the Near East was climate changes of aridity of 8200 cal BP. Perhaps the population could also move eastward to the Northern Pontic Region (water and/or landway). We will try to prove the fact of the migration proces but not only spread of the fashion trend in to Ukrainian steppe region in the very beginning of the 6th millennium BC. on example of Chapaevka type sites. After reviewing the numerous literature about ancient migrations and based on our regional specifics, we created a fairly simple scheme that combines various criteria. As a result, we have four thematic blocks of our evidence base. The main idea of the article is considering the causes and possible penetration paths of newcomers in to the region. Comparison of the materials identifies the weather it was a real migration of an identical population but not only borrowing of "fashion trend". This research will allow to revise the set of contemporary outdated explanations 6 of the Neolithisation of the Northern Pontic region. The results will enable to explain the migration routes and the ways of spreading Neolithic innovations.

NEOLITHIC SOCIETIES AND THEIR POTTERY IN SOUTH-EASTERN LITHUANIA

South-Eastern Lithuanian Stone Age pottery reflects the way of life, nutrition, social status, artistic expression, and intercommunity relationships of its creators and users. Natural conditions unfavourable for the survival of organic material and the intermingling of artefacts from different periods in sandy settlements limit the ability to precisely date and reconstruct the long, distinctive process of Neolithisation that began in the late 6th millennium bc. Analysing the traces of ceramic vessel use, the structure of the pottery, the coiling and decoration technologies, their changes and reasons, it is possible to understand better the traditions of the Forest Neolithic communities and the encounters of different influences in SE Lithuania. Keywords: Neolithic societies, SE Lithuania, potters, pottery, coiling, decoration, interaction between communities.

Ground stone technology in context: Consumption of grinding tools and social practice at Neolithic Avgi, NW Greece

Excavations at the Neolithic site of Avgi (Middle-Late Neolithic, circa 5700-4500 cal. BCE) in the Kastoria region, northwestern Greece, brought to light one of the largest ground stone assemblages known from Neolithic Greece. More than 8000 ground stone tools and objects, raw materials and by-products comprise a valuable record for investigating various aspects of ground stone technology (production, consumption, discard), while their rich contextual information provides an ideal opportunity for addressing its significance for Neolithic societies.
 This paper examines the presence of grinding tools (stable grinding slabs and mobile grinders, their raw materials and by-products) within different spatiotemporal contexts (habitational phases, buildings, open areas, pits). Through the detailed technological and contextual analysis of the grinding artifacts we seek to explore different aspects of their biographies, related to their manufacture, use, maintenance, destruction and discard, within the context of a single Neolithic community. The goal is to shed light on the multiple ways through which the Neolithic society of Avgi consumed those technological products in various social occasions, practices and places (e.g., daily routine activities, special events of communal or symbolic character, individual houses and communal activity areas) and explore their role in the formation of social identities and the production of social meaning.

Discovery of a multi-chambered long cairn at Goasseac'h, Carhaix-Plouguer, central Brittany, France

The discovery of a multi-chambered long cairn in central Brittany dating to the Middle Neolithic period challenges previous conceptions of the coastal focus of Neolithic society in this region.

On the border between land and water: The environmental conditions of the Neolithic occupation from 4.3 until 1.6 ka BC at Serteya, Western Russia

AbstractThe paper presents the results of a palaeoecological study of Neolithic archaeological layers from a wetland, multilayer site, Serteya II (Western Russia). It contains, domestic structures, rich organic artefacts, skeletons, and ecofacts preserved within lacustrine deposits that are extremely important on a European scale. We employed a set of specialised palaeoecological analyses and accelerator mass spectrometry radiocarbon dating to identify the principal environmental conditions which attracted Neolithic hunter‐fisher‐gatherer communities from 4300 to 1600 cal. BC. The distinct impact of communities using a nonproductive economy on the ecology of the palaeolake shore zone was recorded. Also, palaeolake water level changes influenced the palaeoeconomic activity of local Neolithic societies, such as gathering of plants (for the medicinal use or serving as dietary components), fishing activities, and possible funeral practices. In addition, the identified phases of high‐water level changes, which were responses to climatic oscillations, were correlated with supraregional climatic events, especially ca. 6.2, 5.9, and 4.2 ka cal. BP. Thus, our results allowed for the reconstruction of environment transformations and conditions of Neolithic communities' activity, as well as for a better understanding of the relationships between local Neolithic communities' way of life and neolithisation processes in Eastern Europe.

Considering change with archaeological data: Reevaluating local variation in the role of the ~4.2k BP event in Northwest China

Over the past two decades, environmental studies in research on prehistoric China have been gaining popularity and importance. For Northwest China in particular, climate change, especially the so-called ~4.2k BP event has been seen as the main reason for an alleged collapse of Late Neolithic societies and a transition to pastoral-heavy economies and mobile lifeways. Yet, these explanatory models tend to rely on limited archaeological and environmental data and non-contemporaneous historical data, resulting in simplistic causal relationships between environmental changes and social response. This paper re-evaluates the Incipient Bronze Age in China’s Northwestern region, discussing evidence for climate change and its exact dates, as well as textual and archaeological evidence. We argue that the old narratives perpetuating the image of a dichotomy between Steppe and Sown are inaccurate, while large-scale models of region-wide subsistence change in response to climate cooling tend to disregard local developments and group-specific responses as well as chronological issues. Focusing on the Xindian and Siwa archaeological phenomena, this paper provides a view into sub-regional responses to this climate event, warning against simplistic broad-brush reconstructions and calling for both a return to archaeological fundamentals and large-scale intensive fieldwork and interdisciplinary studies involving archaeologists, paleobotanists, zooarchaeologists, isotope specialists, and climate scientists.

Woodworking technology during the early Neolithic: First results at the site of La MARMOTTA (Italy)

The archaeological site La Marmotta (AnguillaraSabazia, Italy) is a singular place as regards the conservation and recovery of wood and plant remains. The exceptional preservation at the site allowed the recovery of five canoes and numerous objects related to navigation, house building, agriculture, hunting and craft activities. The wide range of artefacts found, and the time of the occupation between 5700 and 5300 cal BC, make La Marmotta a point of reference for the study of technology in wood during the early Neolithic in the Mediterranean basin. The specific objective of this study is the taxonomic identification of the ligneous species used as raw material to make artefacts for farming activities. An assemblage of complete and fragmented sickles has been studied. Deciduous Quercus sp. Is the most important taxonaccording to the number of sickles identified. However, other taxa were also used. Woodworking implies a profound knowledge of the natural environment and the characteristics of the wood. The assemblage of wooden objects found at the La Marmotta site reflects the significance of this raw material for Neolithic societies. They are undoubtedly the reflection of a technologically skilled society that will revolutionise our conception of Neolithic communities, which were much more advanced than we thought.

El asentamiento neolítico de Limoneros (Elche, Alicante)

En este trabajo se presentan los resultados de las intervenciones de urgencia llevadas a cabo en el yacimiento de Limoneros, asentamiento al aire libre ocupado durante la primera mitad del V milenio cal BC localizado al sur de la ciudad de Elche (Alicante), en la llanura aluvial del río Vinalopó. Durante los trabajos de excavación se reconocieron distintas estructuras negativas entre las que destacan dos tramos de foso, silos y cubetas, estructuras que quedaron amortizadas en última instancia como zonas de desecho. El análisis global de las evidencias recuperadas permite caracterizar las actividades desarrolladas por una comunidad campesina en un espacio geográfico articulado por el Vinalopó, ámbito en el cual se han documentado un buen número de asentamientos asociados a este momento, convirtiéndose en un marco referente para explicar la expansión y consolidación de las sociedades neolíticas en el sur del Levante peninsular.

Diffusion of Obsidian in the Northwestern Mediterranean

The development of exchange networks over vast distances is one of the most significant characteristics of Neolithic societies. The transition to sedentary agricultural societies is often associated with a considerable increase in the quantity of goods diffused and the distances they travelled. In Europe, and more particularly in the northwestern Mediterranean region, the phenomenon attained its apogee during the period of the Chassey culture (Middle Neolithic II). In this context, obsidian originating from the Mediterranean islands (Sardinia, Lipari, Palmarola and Pantelleria) provides interesting information due to its vast diffusion into the northern African continent, the Italian peninsula, the Midi region of France and the Iberian Peninsula, thus demonstrating the practice of navigation. Numerous models have been proposed to explain this diffusion, which created relationships of interdependency between communities separated by great distances. The recent discovery of the Chassey culture site of Terres Longues in the Midi region has renewed our vision of this phenomenon and encourages us to imagine other modes for the functioning of exchange networks during this period.

Breve história da globalização ocidental e seus custos ambientais

Neste artigo, pretendemos efetuar uma reflexão sobre o processo de globalização da atualidade. Reco­nhecemos globalizações promovidas por estilos de vida que se alastraram pelo mundo sem dominação política, econômica e cultural, como o das sociedades paleolíticas e neolíticas, que se diversificavam à medida em que se disseminavam pelo mundo. Várias civilizações também se globalizaram parcialmente. A maior e mais duradoura de todas antes do mundo ocidental foi a da civilização helênica, expressa no Império Romano. Todas elas causaram impactos sociais, culturais e ambientais. Nenhuma, porém, tem sido tão prolongada em tão impactante como a globalização da civilização ocidental, tanto no espaço como no tempo. Como nenhuma, seus impactos socioambientais têm sido causados pelo sistema econô­mico capitalista. No presente artigo, procuramos examinar as transformações do ambiente natural em todo o planeta sob a pressão do modo de produção capitalista, assim como a constituição de uma nova ciência, que só pode ser tratada, pela complexidade de seu objeto, de forma transdisciplinar; no mínimo de forma multidisciplinar.

A dynastic elite in monumental Neolithic society.

The nature and distribution of political power in Europe during the Neolithic era remains poorly understood1. During this period, many societies began to invest heavily in building monuments, which suggests an increase in social organization. The scale and sophistication of megalithic architecture along the Atlantic seaboard, culminating in the great passage tomb complexes, is particularly impressive2. Although co-operative ideology has often been emphasised as a driver of megalith construction1, the human expenditure required to erect the largest monuments has led some researchers to emphasize hierarchy3—of which the most extreme case is a small elite marshalling the labour of the masses. Here we present evidence that a social stratum of this type was established during the Neolithic period in Ireland. We sampled 44 whole genomes, among which we identify the adult son of a first-degree incestuous union from remains that were discovered within the most elaborate recess of the Newgrange passage tomb. Socially sanctioned matings of this nature are very rare, and are documented almost exclusively among politico-religious elites4—specifically within polygynous and patrilineal royal families that are headed by god-kings5,6. We identify relatives of this individual within two other major complexes of passage tombs 150 km to the west of Newgrange, as well as dietary differences and fine-scale haplotypic structure (which is unprecedented in resolution for a prehistoric population) between passage tomb samples and the larger dataset, which together imply hierarchy. This elite emerged against a backdrop of rapid maritime colonization that displaced a unique Mesolithic isolate population, although we also detected rare Irish hunter-gatherer introgression within the Neolithic population.

First Metallurgy in Northern Europe: An Early Neolithic Crucible and a Possible Tuyère from Lønt, Denmark

In this article we present the fragments of a crucible and a possible tuyère that provide evidence of early copper metallurgy in Scandinavia at least 1500 years earlier than previously thought. The technical ceramics were found in a cultural layer containing Early Neolithic Funnel Beaker pottery dating to around 3800–3500bcbeneath a long barrow dating to 3300–3100bc. The presence of a copper alloy in the crucible is confirmed by three independent X-ray fluorescence analyses using both a hand-held and a stationary instrument, SEM-EDS analysis of a cross-section, as well as a Bruker Tornado μ-X-Ray-fluorescence scanner (μ-XRF). The transmission of metallurgy to southern Scandinavia coincided with the introduction of long barrows, causewayed enclosures, two-aisled houses, and certain types of artefacts. Thus, metallurgy seems to be part of the new networks that enabled the establishment of a fully Neolithic society.

Grave gifts manifest the ritual status of cattle in Neolithic societies of northern Germany

The Neolithic period in NW-Europe marks a time of major transformation in human lifestyle including sedentism, farming, agropastoralism with early animal husbandry and the use of ornamented pottery by “Funnelbeaker” societies. Domestic animals, in particular cattle, served for traction, plowing, and manuring to support agricultural production but also supplied a variety of dietary products including meat, fat, and milk as well as wool. The impact of animal husbandry on improved living conditions in Neolithic societies and in a religious context has been inferred throughout NW-Europe and even earlier in African and Arabian regions by ritual cattle deposits. However, a potential spiritual/religious role of cattle in Neolithic societies is difficult to assess further due to the lack of interpretable Neolithic illustrations. Here, we demonstrate the ritual role of cattle in Neolithic societies from burial gifts preserved in Megalith tombs (3640–2900 BC) of Wangels, NW-Germany, where storage vessels for afterlife alimentary provision of the deceased contained cattle meat and milk products identified by their characteristic lipids but no common aquatic food sources or cereals. Pottery from the latest burial phase only yielded fatty acids which may derive from essential plant oils of Sea Buckthorn (Hippophae rhamnoides) that may have served as precious burial gift for medical or for alimentary purposes. The status of cattle as an object of veneration in Neolithic societies is represented by its dominating contribution to grave gifts underlining the esteem cattle received not only in agroeconomical but even further in ritual and religious respect.