Neoclassical Canons Research Articles

Neoclassical canons of facial beauty: Do we see the deviations?

AimTo explore the presence of neoclassical canons of facial beauty among young people in Croatia and to question possible psychosocial repercussions occurring in those who demonstrate deviations in relation to canons. Subjects and methodsThe study was cross-sectional and the sample included 249 subjects (60% female) aged 12–39 (median 20). Their en face and profile photographs were taken in Natural Head Position. Photogrammetry included analysis of nine neoclassical canons of facial beauty originating from the Renaissance. Psychosocial issues were assessed using the Self-Esteem Scale, Big Five Inventory and three domains of Orthognathic Quality of Life Questionnaire. ResultsSignificant deviations from neoclassical facial beauty canons were observed in 55–65% of adolescents and young adults. Gender and age showed no relation to deviations. The deviations from canons that influenced the quality of life were mainly those related to vertical facial proportions and demonstrated increased facial aesthetics concern and social impact, and higher self-reported treatment need (p < 0.05). Deviations from canons were not related to self-esteem but a decrease in openness, agreeableness and neuroticism was observed. ConclusionNeoclassical canons were not valid for the majority of adolescents and young adults in Croatia. Only deviations from some canons appear to provoke mild psychosocial repercussions.

Facial characteristics in Malagasy adults: A pilot study with 64 volunteers

Context: The facial proportion is essential for preoperative and postoperative assessment in reconstructive and aesthetic surgery. For many years, the neoclassical canon has commonly been used to define the facial morphology features. Aims: The purpose of this study was to assess the validity of neoclassical facial canons and explore its variants in Madagascar population. Settings and Design: This is a descriptive pilot study on facial description of young adult Madagasy volunteers. Subjects and Methods: The study group consists of 64 young adult volunteers, without facial dysmorphy (30 males and 34 females, age 18-30 years). Six neoclassical canons were measured and analyzed. Results were discussed with African, Asian, White Caucasian American and Greek. Results: The three-section facial profile canon was not equal in our population study. The majority of the subjects had a longer forehead and lower face than the middle part; sexual dimorphism was observed. The most frequent variation in the orbital proportion was a wider intercanthal distance. The nose was wider than the intercanthal distance in 100% of the subjects while the mouth width was smaller than the 1.5 nose width. The validity of all canons was poorly demonstrated in our population study. Both African and Asian facial characteristics were observed in our subjects. Conclusion: The majority of our sample does not fit the facial proportion of neoclassical canon. Therefore, it should not be regarded as a directive for facial reconstruction in Malagasy people. These findings can assist surgeons in planning facial plastic surgery for Afro-Asian patients.

The validity of eight neoclassical facial canons in the Turkish adults.

The neoclassical canons were used to define the proportions between various areas of the head and face. Therefore, this study was done to establish the neoclassical canons of facial proportions in Turkish adults. A total of 200 healthy adults 20 to 35 years of age were examined. Using anthropometric landmarks, 5 horizontal and 9 vertical direct measurements were made on the faces with a sliding calliper. Results have been compared with 8 neoclassical facial canons. When comparing between sexes, a significant difference has been found in all measurements except the upper facial width, left eye-fissure width, forehead height I and II (p < 0.005). The nasofacial proportion has been found to include the most proportional subjects (33%) followed by the orbito-nasal (30%), the orbital proportion (25%) and the naso-oral proportion (17%) in the female. Considering the male, the orbital proportion has been found to include the most proportional subjects (23%) followed by the orbito-nasal proportion (21%), naso-facial proportion (19%) and the naso-oral proportion (17%). The neoclassical canons have been shown to rarely be applicable to Turkish adults and our results may contribute to determine the concepts of transcultural facial structures.

A Global Perspective of Beauty in a Multicultural World.

Multiculturism has shaped our perception of beauty over time. Neoclassical canons still have a strong influence on current teachings in nasal and facial analysis and can be used as a loose guideline for surgical planning. However, these canons are based on Greco-Roman ideals and have limited value for analysis and surgical planning of people with multicultural backgrounds. Some attributes of beauty thought to cross cultural lines are described in a theory of evolutionary psychology that includes averageness, youthfulness, symmetry, and sexual dimorphism. Taking these cues into consideration, it is important that the surgeon also listens to the patient and understands what his or her aesthetic goals are. It is also the role of the modern surgeon to help guide the patient and advocate for natural results that fall within the normal limits of the culture of the patient. A natural result that does not disrupt the balance and harmony of the face should be strived for. At the recent Advances in Rhinoplasty 2015 Meeting (May 14-17, 2015; Chicago, Illinois), an insightful panel was presented titled “The Rhinoplasty Patient’s Experience: A Global Perspective.” This panel of international experts, which included Roxana Cobo, MD, of Colombia, Charles East, MD, of England, Yong Ju Jang, MD, of Korea, Dirk Menger, MD, of the Netherlands, and Volney Pitombo, MD, of Brazil, described the diverse processes that patients from different parts of the world and of different ethnicity use as motivations for rhinoplasty and facial plastic surgery. This panel gave great insight into the diverse and changing nature of global approach to rhinoplasty and understanding of the facial beauty goals. The quest for a universal standard of beauty can be

Three-dimensional facial analyses of Indian and Malaysian women.

Context:Facial measurements serve as a valuable tool in the treatment planning of maxillofacial rehabilitation, orthodontic treatment, and orthognathic surgeries. The esthetic guidelines of face are still based on neoclassical canons, which were used in the ancient art. These canons are considered to be highly subjective, and there is ample evidence in the literature, which raises such questions as whether or not these canons can be applied for the modern population.Aims:This study was carried out to analyze the facial features of Indian and Malaysian women by using three-dimensional (3D) scanner and thus determine the prevalence of neoclassical facial esthetic canons in both the groups.Subjects and Methods:The study was carried out on 60 women in the age range of 18–25 years, out of whom 30 were Indian and 30 Malaysian. As many as 16 facial measurements were taken by using a noncontact 3D scanner.Statistical Analysis Used:Unpaired t-test was used for comparison of facial measurements between Indian and Malaysian females. Two-tailed Fisher exact test was used to determine the prevalence of neoclassical canons.Results:Orbital Canon was prevalent in 80% of Malaysian women; the same was found only in 16% of Indian women (P = 0.00013). About 43% of Malaysian women exhibited orbitonasal canon (P = 0.0470) whereas nasoaural canon was prevalent in 73% of Malaysian and 33% of Indian women (P = 0.0068).Conclusions:Orbital, orbitonasal, and nasoaural canon were more prevalent in Malaysian women. Facial profile canon, nasooral, and nasofacial canons were not seen in either group. Though some canons provide guidelines in esthetic analyses of face, complete reliance on these canons is not justifiable.

Are Neoclassical Canons Valid for Southern Chinese Faces?

BackgroundProportions derived from neoclassical canons, initially described by Renaissance sculptors and painters, are still being employed as aesthetic guidelines during the clinical assessment of the facial morphology.Objective1. to determine the applicability of neoclassical canons for Southern Chinese faces and 2. to explore gender differences in relation to the applicability of the neoclassical canons and their variants.Methodology3-D photographs acquired from 103 young adults (51 males and 52 females) without facial dysmorphology were used to test applicability of four neoclassical canons. Standard anthropometric measurements that determine the facial canons were made on these 3-D images. The validity of the canons as well as their different variants were quantified.Principal FindingsThe neoclassical cannons seldom applied to these individuals, and facial three-section and orbital canons did not apply at all. The orbitonasal canon was most frequently applicable, with a frequency of 19%. Significant sexual dimorphism was found relative to the prevalence of the variants of facial three-section and orbitonasal canons.ConclusionThe neoclassical canons did not appear to apply to our sample when rigorous quantitative measurements were employed. Thus, they should not be used as esthetic goals for craniofacial surgical interventions.

Neoclassical Facial Canons in Young Adults

Facial proportional analysis is commonly used in the preoperative planning as well as in consultation for aesthetic and reconstructive operations. Neoclassical canons, introduced by Ancient Greeks, have been used to describe the facial morphological features for many years. In this paper, the validity of 7 neoclassical canons was tested in young adult Greeks. The frequency and kind of variations were noted. Direct anthropometric landmarks, obtained from 163 volunteer subjects, were used to test the neoclassical canons of the Greek face. These measurements produced 7 neoclassical canons: the 3-section facial profile canon (tr-n=n-sn=sn-gn), the naso-aural proportion canon (n-sn=sa-sba), the naso-aural inclination canon, the orbital canon (en-en=ex-en), the orbitonasal canon (en-en=al-al), the naso-oral canon (ch-ch=1+1/2 al-al), and the nasofacial canon (al-al=1/4 zy-zy). Results were compared with North American Caucasians published in a previous study. A significant difference was found between genders in the orbital proportion canon, the orbitonasal canon, and the nasofacial and the naso-oral proportion canon. The difference between the 2 races was demonstrated in the orbitonasal proportion canon, the naso-aural inclination canon, and the dominant variation of the naso-oral proportion canon. The mean frequency of all valid canons was greater in White Americans than in Greeks but similar among Greek genders. In the majority of Greeks, the neoclassical canons were not valid. In absence of valid proportion indices, this study offers surgeons guidance in assessing facial characteristics of Greek patients in preparation for corrective surgery and evaluation of postoperative results.

Enhancing the Symmetry and Proportion of 3D Face Geometry

We present an engine for enhancing the geometry of a 3D face mesh model while making the enhanced version share close similarity with the original. After obtaining the feature points of a given scanned 3D face model, we first perform a local and global symmetrization on the key facial features. We then apply an overall proportion optimization to the frontal face based on Neoclassical Canons and golden ratios. A nonlinear least-squares solution is adopted to adjust the feature points so that the face profile complies with the aesthetic criteria, which are derived from the profile cosmetology. Through the above processes, we obtain the optimized feature points, which will lead to a more attractive face. According to the original feature points and the optimized ones, we perform Laplacian deformation to adjust the remaining points of the face in order to preserve the geometric details. The analysis of user study in this paper validates the effectiveness of our 3D face geometry enhancement engine.

A Systematic Review of Interethnic Variability in Facial Dimensions

The earliest recorded facial proportional analysis is in the Greek neoclassical canons (c. 450 b.c.). In contemporary times, there has not yet been a study that describes the relative differences in facial proportions among the world's different ethnic groups. The specific aim of this project was to perform a systematic review of data from the existing literature to evaluate the degree of variability in the facial dimensions among various ethnic groups. A PubMed database review identified primary articles containing measurements of facial proportions from various ethnic groups. These facial measurements included the heights and widths of the upper, middle, and lower face, which are the features originally described by the neoclassical canons. Coefficients of variation were calculated to derive a unit-free comparison of the degree of variability among different ethnic groups in each of the neoclassically measured facial dimensions. The authors' literature search identified 239 potential articles. After screening for the inclusion and exclusion criteria, seven relevant articles were selected. These articles contained data on 11 linear facial measurements from 2359 male and female individuals from 27 different ethnic groups; features that demonstrated the largest differences among the different ethnic populations were forehead height, interocular distance, and nasal width. The greatest interethnic variability in facial proportions exists in the height of the forehead. More pronounced differences among the ethnic groups are also present in the measurements of the eyes, nose, and mouth. There is no significant difference between sexes in the neoclassical facial proportions.

Do the neoclassical canons still describe the beauty of faces? An anthropometric study on 50 Caucasian models

Objective Since a long time has gone from their definitions, the authors’ aim was to determine whether or not the neoclassical canons are still valid to describe the facial beauty in Italian women. Materials and methods The photographs of 50 italian models selected for an important beauty contest were obtained. All the pictures were taken by a professional photographer with a professional digital reflex camera with a millimeter-graduated scale white background. All the pictures were printed in 1:1 dimensions. Eleven neoclassical canons were measured and the results statistically evaluated. Results The results of the present study showed that the medium face third is reduced when compared to the upper and the lower thirds and that the two upper quarters of the face are decreased if compared to the two lower quarters (p < 0.01). The nose height was smaller than ear height and the nose width smaller than 1/4 of facial width. In 72% of cases the ear axis was steeper than the nose. The intercanthal width in this study resulted smaller than nose width and smaller than eye width (p < 0.05). Mouth width was greater than 150% of nose width. Conclusions It can be concluded that some of the neoclassical canons can be considered still valid, while others seem to be changed over centuries. In particular it seems that relatives reductions in facial medium third, in nose dimensions and in distance between eyes have occurred as well as relative enlargement of eyes and mouth width.

Hispanic-American Rhinoplasty

Hispanic Americans have quickly become a major ethnic group in the United States who are interested in nasal cosmetic surgery. They are derived from a variety of ethnicities with a corresponding diversity in nasal anatomy. Rhinoplasty in Hispanic Americans has evolved from imitating neoclassical canons to preservation of ethnic characteristics. Common problems addressed in this population are narrowing and augmenting the height of the nasal dorsum; increasing projection, rotation, and definition of the nasal tip; and reducing alar flare and base width. Anatomic goals for surgery should satisfy both individual desires and ethnic features that are to be created or to be preserved. Here we describe the techniques used by the senior author (R.W.H.K.).

Computation of a face attractiveness index based on neoclassical canons, symmetry, and golden ratios

Analysis of attractiveness of faces has long been a topic of research. Literature has identified many different factors that can be related to attractiveness. In this research we analyze the role of symmetry, neoclassical canons, and golden ratio in the determination of attractiveness of a face. We focus on the geometry of a face and use actual faces for our analysis. We find there are some differences in the criteria used by males and females to determine attractiveness. The model we have developed to predict the attractiveness of a face using its geometry is accurate with low residual errors.

Evaluation of soft-tissue morphology of the face in 1,050 young adults.

Anthropometry of the face has always been an interesting subject for artists and plastic surgeons. Since ancient times, many rules have been proposed for the ideal face. The authors measured directly vertical and horizontal proportions of the face and inclinations of the soft-tissue facial profile in 1050 young Turkish adults. Differences between the facial measurements of subjects from seven different geographic regions were analyzed. Some of the measurements were compared further with the measurements of other populations in the literature, and the validity of the neoclassical canons were tested. The special head height measure was shorter than the special face height in the majority of our study group (women/men: equal height, 13%/15%; longer special head height, 28%/30%; shorter special head height, 59%/55%). Faces with three equally high-profile sections were not seen in women or in men. When the forehead height was compared with the nose height, equality was present in a small percentage of the population (women/men: equal height, 17%/18%; longer forehead, 41%/ 42%; shorter forehead, 42%/40%). The nose height was equal to the lower face height in a minority of the population (women/men: equal height, 10%/11%; longer nose, 9%/11%; shorter nose (81%/78%). The forehead height was shorter than the lower face height in the majority of the population (women/ men: equal height, 8%/9%; longer forehead, 12%/13%; shorter forehead, 79%/78%). The intercanthal distance was shorter than the nose width in the majority of the population (women/men: equal width, 20%/19%; wider intercanthal distance, 35%/37%; narrower intercanthal width, 65%/68%). The population was distributed evenly in regard to the variations of the orbital proportion canon (women/men: equal intercanthal width and eye fissure length, 31%/36%; wider intercanthal distance, 34%/27%; narrower intercanthal width, 35%/37%). The mouth width was greater than 1.5 times the nose width in the majority of the population (women/men: equal width, 6%/5%; wider mouth, 53%/54%; narrower mouth, 41%/41%). The nose width was narrower than one quarter of the face width in the majority of the population (women/men: equal width, 4%/3%; wider nose, 30%/39%; narrower nose, 66%/58%). The nose inclination was equal to the ear inclination in a very small fraction of subjects (women/ men: equal inclination, 3%/3%; greater nose inclination, 88%/87%; less nose inclination, 9%/9%). To sketch an outline of the average facial profile in the population studied, a convex facial profile is revealed, with the forehead and the chin retrodisplaced minimally with respect to the midface. The neoclassical canons were found to be invalid for the majority of the population in this study, and different proportional analytic results were obtained.

Computer analysis of the African-American face.

An anthropometric study was devised to examine the facial proportions of the African-American. Two hundred African-American subjects between the ages of 18 and 30 years were studied. Objective data were gathered, and standard proportions of the African-American face were obtained. Previous anthropometric studies were performed using direct measurements of facial proportions. Farkas used direct measurements of young adult North American Caucasians and compared them with those of the neoclassical canons. Xeutong evaluated facial proportions of young adults of the Han nationality by direct measurement. The data derived from these studies are compared with our results. Measurements were obtained by standard photographic technique and scanned onto computer diskette. Computer analysis of the objective data was acquired. Thirteen measurements assessing the facial dimensions were used. We observed similar vertical proportions in the African-American face and the Caucasian face. Horizontal dimensions varied significantly between racial groups. Our conclusions will assist the aesthetic surgeon caring for the African-American patient.

Vertical and horizontal proportions of the face in young adult North American caucasians: Revision of neoclassical canons : Farkas L, Hreczko T, Kolar J, Munro I. Plast Reconstr Surg 75:328–337, 1985

Vertical and horizontal proportions of the face in young adult North American caucasians: Revision of neoclassical canons : Farkas L, Hreczko T, Kolar J, Munro I. Plast Reconstr Surg 75:328–337, 1985