Nemeth Code Research Articles

The Effectiveness of Online Courses in Building Nemeth Code Within UEB Contexts Skills and Increasing Knowledge of Strategies to Support Prekindergarten Through Eighth-Grade Students in Their Mathematics Learning

Introduction Professional development can assist individuals in learning a variety of new skills and refining their teaching practice. The purpose of this study was to explore the effectiveness of asynchronous online courses designed to assist individuals in building their Nemeth Code within Unified English Braille (UEB) Contexts skills and strategies for teaching the code to prekindergarten through eighth-grade students. Methods Four teachers of students with visual impairments designed five asynchronous online courses. The courses provided multiple opportunities for participants to actively complete course content as well as learn about strategies and resources for teaching the Nemeth Code within UEB Contexts to children and youths. Each course included an initial survey, pretest, seven self-paced lessons, and posttest. Participants were also invited to complete a follow-up survey. Results Between spring 2020 and spring 2023, 452 participants completed between 1 and 5 of the courses for a total of 620 courses completed. Almost all completers ( n = 598) scored higher on the posttest. Of the 227 individuals who completed the follow-up survey, 223 reported that what they learned in the course had positively impacted how they support or will support students who read braille in their math classes. Discussion Effective professional development goes beyond learning. When individuals actively consume content and reflect upon their learning, their professional practice is transformed. Implications for Practitioners Well-designed asynchronous instructional modules allow professionals to increase their knowledge and skills. Opportunities to practice skills and check one's work, access to instructional videos, and the availability of downloadable slides and resources are helpful to professionals.

Online Synchronous Professional Development to Support Teachers of Students With Visual Impairments in Learning Nemeth Code Within Unified English Braille Contexts

Introduction: This study explored the impact of synchronous professional development regarding Nemeth Code Within Unified English Braille (UEB) Contexts on the knowledge and skills of 17 teachers of students with visual impairments. Methods: Participants attended the professional development sessions in June 2022 and submitted a pretest, posttest, final assignment, and posttraining survey. Results: Sixteen out of 17 participants scored higher on their posttest with a mean difference of 5.53. None of the participants submitted an error-free assignment. Total numbers of errors ranged from 8 to 60, and the categories with the highest percentage of errors were formatting, use of opening and terminating switch indicators, and Nemeth Code symbols. Discussion: In order to successfully progress in the general education curriculum, students who read braille must have access to timely, accurately prepared materials in all content areas including mathematics. Direct examination of the final assignment submitted by the 17 participants revealed similar error patterns to previous research. In addition, some of the participants struggled to correctly use Nemeth Code switch indicators. Implications for Practitioners: Teachers of students with visual impairments should continue to build their skills for Nemeth Code within UEB Contexts. Additional resources and professional development are urgently needed.

Experiences of Teachers of Students With Visual Impairments in Learning and Teaching a New Braille Code for Mathematics and Science

Introduction: In 2016, the United States transitioned to two new braille codes for science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM). Little is known about the experiences of teachers of students with visual impairments in learning and supporting their students in learning these new braille codes: Nemeth Code within Unified English Braille (UEB) Contexts and UEB Technical. Methods: Thirteen certified teachers of students with visual impairments participated in one of three focus groups during the spring of 2020. The audio files were transcribed and then analyzed. Results: Some participants reported that they were still in the process of transitioning to Nemeth Code within UEB Contexts or UEB Technical. The majority of participants learned a new code through self-study and were introducing the symbols incrementally to their students. The participants reported that their students had been successful in learning Nemeth Code within UEB Contexts or UEB Technical, but there were challenges, including inadequate lead time, in supporting their students in STEM classes. Discussion: Affordable training and professional development for learning a new code were needed. Additional resources, including grade-level charts and curricula for K-12 students, should be created for both codes. Implications for Practitioners: Teachers of students with visual impairments are an essential part of the STEM educational team for students who read braille. Supporting student learning requires specialized knowledge of the braille codes used in STEM courses and technologies for producing tactile materials. Sharing of instructional materials, existing resources, and teacher expertise throughout mentorship would benefit the field of visual impairment.

An interactive math braille learning application to assist blind students in Bangladesh

ABSTRACT Due to the lack of affordable assistive tools for learning mathematics, blind students in Bangladesh still use outdated learning tools like Tailor Frame. Therefore, demand for a low-cost technological tool is there that will help the blind students to learn math braille and calculate numbers more easily. To provide an effective and affordable assistive tool, this study begins with a needs assessment study to identify the basic needs of blind students in learning math braille and solving mathematical calculations. Afterward, a mobile phone based interactive assistive application is proposed to improve the learning facilities of math braille using Nemeth code for blind students in Bangladesh. Interfaces of the application are designed based on their needs. Besides, interaction methods (such as, hearing & touching) of blind students with the physical world were another criterion in designing very interactive interfaces that provide self-learning facilities. The interfaces are evaluated by the teachers, experts, and end users in order to identify the usability. The evaluation shows a promising result toward the acceptability of the designed application. Therefore, this application can be helpful for the blind students to learn math braille using Nemeth Code.

Perspectives of Teenagers and Adults Who are Legally Blind on Their Knowledge and Preference for Either Nemeth or UEB for Mathematics

Seventy-one legally blind teens and 123 legally blind adults in the United States were asked about their experiences learning two braille notations for mathematics: the Nemeth Code for Mathematics and Science Notation (Nemeth Code) and Unified English Braille (UEB). About 70% of both teens and adults reported having been introduced to Nemeth Code. About 70% of teens and about one-third of adults reported having been introduced to UEB. In open-ended comments, participants expressed that a lack of Nemeth Code knowledge among teachers of the visually impaired (TVIs) is a major barrier to proper instruction. Participants also described a pattern of not teaching braille math notation to students with residual vision, and some adult participants who had residual vision as children expressed a wish that they had been taught braille math codes. While opinions were mixed regarding the switch from Nemeth Code to UEB in the United States, several concerns about the switch were raised, including concerns about the learning curve as well as a preference for the efficiency of Nemeth Code. Results underscore the importance of training TVIs who are knowledgeable and comfortable teaching UEB and Nemeth Code and the importance of braille for participation in math and science fields.

Implementation of Unified English Braille by Teachers of Students with Visual Impairments in the United States

Introduction This study analyzed survey responses from 141 teachers of students with visual impairments who shared their experiences about the implementation of Unified English Braille (UEB). Methods Teachers of students with visual impairments in the United States completed an online survey during spring 2016. Results Although most respondents knew if their state had a UEB transition plan, few participated in its development. Half attended workshops to learn about word-based UEB, but few attended workshops about math-based UEB. They believed their students would be successful in transitioning to word-based UEB but were less sure about their transition to math-based UEB. Discussion The teachers believed they were more confident in their own skills and their students' future success with word-based UEB compared to math-based UEB. Additional clarification on the relationship between math-based UEB and the Nemeth Braille Code for Mathematics and Science Notation (hereafter, Nemeth code), an increased capacity of math-based UEB training, and clear instruction for high-stakes testing were considered to be urgent issues among these teachers. Implications for practitioners Issues concerning the implementation of UEB in the United States will continue to challenge the field of visual impairment for the next several years. Although many teachers of visually impaired students had knowledge of word-based UEB and resources for its implementation, as of January 4, 2016, few were prepared to teach math-based UEB. As the United States is maintaining the Nemeth code, future studies, workshops, and the development of resources are needed to ensure braille users have the knowledge and materials they need in order to be literate in all aspects of UEB.

Results of an Online Refresher Course to Build Braille Transcription Skills in Professionals

Certified transcribers, non-certified transcribers, volunteers, paraeducators, and teachers of students with visual impairments transcribe braille materials for K-12 students (those in kindergarten through 12th grade), and their training and level of preparedness varies greatly (Corn & Wall, 2002; Herzberg & Stough, 2007; Rosenblum & Herzberg, 2011). With the exception of conference sessions, courses offered by the Hadley School for the Blind, and university courses, there is not a national vehicle for individuals to easily and inexpensively refresh their knowledge of braille formatting, tactile graphics production, and braille codes, including the Nemeth Braille Code for Mathematics and Science Notation (hereafter referred to as Nemeth code). In 1999, Allman and Holbrook advocated for refresher braille courses based on the analysis of pretest and posttest data from their successful regional braille refresher workshops (Allman & Holbrook, 1999). Amato's 2002 study of teacher preparation programs in the United States and Canada also supported the use of refresher courses (Amato, 2002). Forty-two of the 45 respondents in that study reported that refresher courses should be required at regular intervals or when a teacher thought it was necessary to update skills. Distance education provides access to learning without requiring one to simultaneously be with the instructor. Distance education avenues have been used as a part of braille instruction over the last two decades. In 1997, Kapperman and others developed a computer-based Nemeth Braille Code Tutorial, which is still used by individuals to refresh their knowledge (Kapperman, Henry, Cortesi, Heinze, & Sticken, 1997). Wormsley (2001) reported on a successful literary braille refresher course that incorporated video teleconferencing. Given the increase of distance education options, there was a need to explore the feasibility and effectiveness of online braille courses, including those that focus on Nemeth code, formatting, and tactile graphics. It has been anecdotally hypothesized that K-12 students who read braille receive materials that are not equal in quality to materials received by sighted peers (Corn & Wall, 2002). This hypothesis was supported by a direct examination of braille transcriptions of mathematics materials. More than half of the transcriptions contained errors (Herzberg & Rosenblum, 2014). In addition, in a recent study of 12 students in grades 6-12, 11 of the youths reported that there were times when they were not provided materials in braille at the same time sighted peers received print materials (Rosenblum & Herzberg, 2015). The data from the Herzberg and Rosenblum (2014) study regarding frequently occurring Nemeth code and formatting errors as well as variability in the production of tactile graphics were used in the development of an online refresher course. This article reports the results of a follow-up survey (referred to as the survey) of individuals who completed all course requirements. The University of South Carolina Upstate and the U.S. Department of Education (H235E090010) funded the development of the course. The following research questions were explored: 1. What knowledge about the Nemeth code, formatting of mathematics materials, and producing tactile graphics was gained through the completion of the online course? 2. What, if any, impact did the completion of the online course have on the way in which participants prepared mathematics materials in braille? 3. What course features were helpful? METHODS Participants The project was approved by the Institutional Review Committee at the University of South Carolina Upstate. Recruitment for the refresher course occurred through postings on electronic discussion groups in the field of visual impairment in early 2014. The course ran from March 1 to April 15, 2014, at no cost to individuals who were currently preparing mathematics materials for K-12 students and wanted to refresh their knowledge of some aspects of the Nemeth code, formatting, and tactile graphics production. …

A Web-based Tutorial for the Nemeth Braille Code for Mathematics and Science Notation

The evidence shows that individuals who cannot see print and therefore must use printed materials that have been transcribed into braille experience great difficulty in achieving proficiency in mathematics, ultimately limiting their opportunities for gainful employment in our technological society. One of the major reasons for this situation is that many teachers of children who are blind and many vision rehabilitation therapists working with adults who are blind are not competent in the braille code for mathematics (DeMario, Lang, & Lian, 1998; DeMario & Lian, 2000; Kapperman, 1994; Kapperman & Sticken, 2003; Rosenblum & Amato, 2004; Wittenstein, 1993). The Research and Development Institute (RDI) has developed several tutorial products for the Nemeth Braille Code for Mathematics and Science Notation (hereafter, Nemeth code) to serve as resources for teachers of students who are blind, rehabilitation therapists, and children and adults who are blind, beginning with the Computerized Nemeth Code Tutorial in 1997 (Kapperman, Henry, Cortesi, Heinze, & Sticken, 1997). This original version was purely visual and, therefore, was not accessible to people who are blind. In partnership with Freedom Scientific from 2001 to 2005, an accessible version of the tutorial was developed and made available exclusively for the BrailleLite braille notetaker (Kapperman & Sticken, 2001, 2002, 2005). In partnership with HumanWare, an updated and heavily revised version of the tutorial became available in 2007. This accessible product worked only on the BrailleNote braille notetaker (Kapperman & Sticken, 2007) and was subsequently determined (through a rigorous, scientific study) to be highly effective as a tool to improve Nemeth code proficiency (Kapperman, Sticken, & Smith, 2011, 2012). After determining that the tutorial model is, indeed, an effective resource for acquiring or improving knowledge of the Nemeth code, a new goal emerged: the authors began to search for a totally accessible platform that would be available to anyone interested in the Nemeth code anywhere, anytime, and without the requirement of purchasing specific hardware in order to use proprietary software. In 2011, in partnership with the American Printing House for the Blind (APH), and with funding through a grant from the U.S. Department of Education (Grant no. H133G110122), the web-based Nemeth Code Tutorial project was launched. Over a period of three years, the staff members of RDI developed the content of the tutorial while APH software engineers developed the software. This revolutionary tool is now available, at no charge, to anyone who has access to the Internet, from a Windows or Macintosh platform (including on devices such as the iPad, iPhone, and Android-based cellular phones), using any assistive technology software or hardware (including any screen reader or magnification program and any keyboard, including electronic refreshable braille devices). It resides on the APH website, . METHODS The content of the web-based Nemeth Code Tutorial was largely revamped to reflect the current sequence of symbol introduction used in mathematics instruction, based on grade-level expectations according to the Common Core State Standards (CCSS) that have been adopted by 43 states and the District of Columbia to date (Ujifusa, 2015). Also reviewed as a guideline for creating the sequence of the chapters and lessons in the new tutorial was the Maryland Common Core State Curriculum Frameworks for Braille, which were released by the Maryland State Department of Education in 2012 (Maryland School Performance, 2014). This document outlines the sequence of literary and Nemeth code braille symbols which students should master at each grade level. Although significant revisions to the Nemeth Code Tutorial content and sequence have been made in this new version of the tutorial, the basic structure and function remain the same as in previous versions. …

Technical Aspects of the Development of a Web-based, Interactive Nemeth Code Tutorial

The authors describe the steps involved in the development of the Nemeth Code Tutorial, a web-based tutorial for blind persons to learn to read and write the code of braille mathematics.

Moving Forward with Unified English Braille in the United States

A quarter of a century ago, a white paper was submitted to the board of the Braille Authority of North America (BANA). The paper--authored by braille pioneers Tim Cranmer, researcher and creator of the Cranmer Abacus, and Abraham Nemeth, inventor of the Nemeth Braille Code for Mathematics and Science Notation--described the need to streamline the braille codes being used in North America and outlined the concept of a unified code that could include symbols and rules for all contexts. What began as a BANA research project soon became an international effort as seven countries comprising the International Council on English Braille (ICEB) worked together to develop such a code. The ICEB committees, consisting primarily of braille readers, worked for over a decade to develop Unified English Braille (UEB), which by 2004 was deemed sufficiently complete for individual countries to adopt. Soon after, South Africa, Australia, Nigeria, and New Zealand adopted UEB; Canada adopted it in 2010, and the United Kingdom adopted it in 2011. Ireland has now joined ICEB, making it the eighth country to take part in the implementation of UEB. Since 2004, the United States has monitored the implementation of UEB around the world, and it remains an active member of ICEB. After a great deal of deliberation, in November 2012, the United States member organizations of BANA voted to adopt UEB in the United States. After additional consideration and discussion, the implementation date was set for January 4, 2016. At that time, the official braille codes for use in the United States will be UEB, Nemeth code, the music code, and the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). The BANA Board created a UEB transition task force to identify immediate, intermediate, and long-term tasks and to begin work on a large number of assignments. For example, the BANA website was updated to create a UEB page, UEB example documents were produced so more people could become familiar with the code, and outreach efforts were conducted to inform constituents about the transition to UEB. PHASES OF IMPLEMENTATION BANA has been working toward implementation of UEB in the United States in four phases: I. 2013: Information year--BANA developed and disseminated information about UEB and gathered input from constituents. II. 2014: Infrastructure year--BANA and other organizations planned for procurement and production of braille materials in UEB and developed training materials. III. 2015: Instructional year--Readers, producers, and educators become proficient in UEB. IV. 2016: Implementation year--All new transcriptions will be produced in UEB; educators will teach the code. Devices and software will fully and accurately incorporate UEB. The BANA Board consists of representatives of 18 member organizations, but there are others who are part of the national braille community. A UEB transition forum was established for national organizations outside of BANA to participate in planning the implementation efforts within their organizations. The forum consists of delegates selected by organizations such as the Association of Instructional Resource Centers for the Blind and Visually Impaired; the National Prison Braille Network; the National Agenda for the Education of Children and Youths with Visual Impairments, Including Those with Multiple Disabilities; the Council for Exceptional Children; VisionServe Alliance; and many others. Delegates represent their organizations at face-to-face meetings that have been held in conjunction with the Annual Meeting of the American Printing House for the Blind (APH) and through an electronic discussion group. Together with BANA, the transition forum helps disseminate information and shares resources. NATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS OFFER RESOURCES AND TRAINING At the time of this writing, four months before the implementation date, it is possible to look back at the great progress that has been made in a relatively short time. …

Using Constant Time Delay to Teach Braille and the Nemeth Code for Mathematics and Science Notation to Students Making the Transition from Print to Braille

Introduction Many students with adventitious vision loss or progressive vision loss need to transition from print to braille as a primary literacy medium. It is important that this transition is handled efficiently so that the student can have continued access to a literacy medium and make progress in the core curriculum. For this study, we used constant time delay to teach literary braille contractions and Nemeth Code for Mathematics and Science Notation (hereafter, Nemeth Code) braille symbols to learners with visual impairments who were making the transition from print to braille. Methods A single-subject, multiple-probe research design was used to test the effectiveness and efficiency of constant time delay to teach literary braille or Nemeth Code. Three female students, aged 13 to 15 years, participated at a specialized school for students with visual impairments. The students’ braille and math instructor delivered interventions in the classroom. Procedural fidelity and interobserver agreement data were collected. Results Two students each learned 40 short-form literary braille contractions, and one student learned 28 Nemeth Code symbols throughout the study. Students appeared to generalize learning after instruction with the first word set to identify similar contractions. Students maintained learning throughout the study at high levels. Visual analysis of the data suggests a functional relationship between constant time delay and contraction identification. Discussion This study replicated previous work (Hooper, Ivy, & Hatton, 2014) to expand understanding of the scope of the usefulness of time delay in braille education. Implications for practitioners For students making the transition from print to braille, constant time delay may be an efficient method to help students acquire braille. The efficiency itself may increase students’ confidence and motivation to learn braille.

The Development of Accepted Performance Items to Demonstrate Braille Competence in the Nemeth Code for Mathematics and Science Notation

Introduction The purpose of the study presented here was the initial validation of a comprehensive set of competencies focused solely on the Nemeth code. Methods Using the Delphi method, 20 expert panelists were recruited to participate in the study on the basis of their past experience in teaching a university-level course in the Nemeth code. The Delphi method uses multiple iterations or “rounds” to develop a consensus. The panelists were given the list of competencies developed by a focus group and were asked to rank their importance and the level of resources they would expect a beginning teacher of students with visual impairments to use. With each round, the panelists were provided with the statistical results and comments on the previous round, so they could make an informed decision on their next rating. Results Only three rounds were necessary for the panelists to reach a consensus. For writing, the panelists reached a consensus on 12 (41%) statements for importance and 17 (59%) for reference. For reading, they reached a consensus on 19 statements (66%) for importance and 23 (79%) for references. Comments from the panelists focused primarily on the fact that teachers of students with visual impairments need to use resources more often for writing to ensure the quality of their transcriptions, but that they should be able to read without resources. This difference may be due to the panelists’ perception that teachers of students with visual impairments need to be more equipped to back-translate from the Nemeth code into print than to transcribe from print into the Nemeth code. Discussion On the basis of the scoring and the comments, the panelists had different expectations for their students. These differences may have been due to their own level of understanding of the Nemeth code or mathematics in general. Implications for practitioners This study is the first step in developing a comprehensive set of Nemeth code competencies for the field of special education for students with visual impairments. These competencies will become the benchmark for all university programs as they develop their courses on the Nemeth code. They may also be used for the framework for professional development for in-service teachers of students with visual impairments.

Unified English Braille: The Future of Braille in the United States

The Braille Authority of North America (BANA) is the rule setting body that establishes the and guidelines for braille use in North America. On November 2, 2012, the Board of BANA voted to adopt Unified English Braille (UEB) in the United States. (Canada, part of BANA, had already voted to adopt UEB in 2011, because adoption is determined by country, not by braille authority.) UEB will replace the current literary braille code, English Braille American Edition. Nemeth Code for Mathematics and Science Notation, music braille, and the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) will continue to be recognized as official braille in the United States. To understand what led to the historic decision to adopt UEB, a bit of background information is necessary. How the unified code came to be The braille code as it has been used in the United States has changed numerous times in the approximately 90 years since its adoption. By the 1980s, several were commonly used: literary, Nemeth, music braille, and computer braille. Multiple meant that multiple symbols were used for the same symbol in print, such as the period, the dollar sign, and the comma. In 1991, two well-respected experts in the field of tactile communication presented a paper about the prolifer ation of braille codes to the BANA Board. Tim Cranmer, founder of the International Braille Research Center and inventor of the Cranmer Abacus, and Abraham Nemeth, creator of the Nemeth code and retired professor of mathematics, described the need for a unified code that would use the same symbols in braille in all contexts and would streamline braille to make it easier to read, write, and learn. A copy of this document is on the BANA website, . As a result of this letter from Drs. Cranmer and Nemeth, BANA established a committee to examine the possibilities of developing a unified code. Shortly thereafter, other English speaking countries were invited to participate in the project through the International Council on English Braille (ICEB). Throughout the 1990s and into the early 2000s, this international community, consisting primarily of braille readers, worked diligently through an open process to develop a code first referred to as Unified Braille Code (UBC), then UEB. In 2004, UEB was considered substantially complete for individual countries to begin the process of voting on the adoption of UEB. For the past eight years, BANA has been monitoring the implementation of UEB as it has been adopted in ICEB countries: first South Africa, then Australia, New Zealand, Nigeria, Canada, and the United Kingdom. DESCRIPTION OF UEB'S TECHNICAL DETAILS UEB is based on the current literary braille code, the code most widely used in English speaking countries, and it was designed to be as clear and consistent as possible to allow for ease of reading and transcribing. UEB is designed to be more computable than the current code; that is, it is easier to use transcription software to create accurate braille from electronic print files using UEB, and it has more flexible rules and fewer exceptions to those rules. It is also possible to back-translate UEB, meaning that individuals who use electronic devices to read and create electronic braille can turn electronic UEB files into print more easily for people who don't read braille. Out of the 189 contractions in literary braille, nine have been deleted to allow for greater consistency and less ambiguity: ally, ation, ble, by, com, dd, into, o'clock, and to. …

The use of Final-Letter Braille Contractions: A Case Study

Louis developed a six-dot braille code in the early 1800s, thus creating an effective way for persons who are visually impaired to communicate through reading and writing (Holbrook, D'Andrea, & Sanford, 2011). Without braille, it is unlikely that students with visual impairments (that is, those who are blind or have low vision) would experience the level of education and independence that they do today (Holbrook & Koenig, 2000). This view was echoed by Spungin (1996, p. 271): Braille is the key to information, and the ability to manage and manipulate information is essential to a person's self-sufficiency and self-esteem. Students with visual impairments require braille instruction from teachers of students with visual impairments, who are responsible for teaching direct braille literacy skills to students from kindergarten through at least the third grade (Koenig & Holbrook, 2000b). Studies have indicated that daily instruction ranging from one to two hours is critical for the development of braille literacy skills (Koenig & Holbrook, 2000a; Corn & Koenig, 2002). Consistent, well-designed reading instruction in braille is associated with the development of proficient literacy skills in children who are blind (Wall Emerson, Sitar, Erin, Wormsley, & Herlich, 2009). Reading instruction for children who are visually impaired should focus on both the literary braille code and the components of the reading process, including phonemic awareness, phonics, vocabulary, fluency, and comprehension (Wall Emerson, Holbrook, & D'Andrea, 2009; Swenson, 2008). Individuals tend to read braille at a slower rate than print readers read print (Wall Em erson, Holbrook, & D'Andrea, 2009; Harley, Truan, & Sanford, 1997; Wetzel & Knowlton, 2000). In the Alphabetic and Contracted Study, the mean of the reading speed of 20 third-grade students who read braille was 53.19 in contrast to the norm of 107 for sighted students at the 50th percentile (Wall Emerson, Holbrook, & D'Andrea, 2009; Hasbrouck & Tindal, 2006). Poor knowledge of braille contractions may hinder reading and writing fluency, which is imperative for success in school. Research has shown that students are at risk of advancing in school with poor, fragmented braille skills if they have not had high-quality instruction during their elementary school years, which may hinder their progress in all other school subjects (Koenig & Holbrook, 2000b). Therefore, continued intensive instruction in writing and reading from a teacher who knows braille is required throughout the elementary school years (Wall Emerson, Holbrook, & D'Andrea, 2009; Wall Emerson et al., 2009; Harley et al., 1997; Koenig & Holbrook, 2000a; Swenson, 1999). The purpose of the case study presented here was to increase a participant's knowledge and use of the 14 final-letter braille contractions, including the ability to identify the dot placement of the contractions, verbalize the letters that each contraction represented, identify the sound each contraction made, use contractions consistently in writing, and fluently decode words containing these contractions. METHOD Participant and setting The participant, Amy, was a 9-year-old girl in the third grade whose primary mode of reading and writing was braille. She did not have a secondary disability. In kindergarten, Amy attended a residential school for students with visual impairments and then transferred to her neighborhood elementary school at the beginning of the first grade. During the first and second grades, she was taught braille using Patterns: The Primary Program (Caton, Pestor, & Bradley, 1980). In the third grade, braille instruction initially focused on the Nemeth Code for Mathematics and Science Notation. During the intervention, 4 days a week for 30 minutes, braille instruction focused on the final-letter contractions. …

A National Video Library for Teacher Preparation in Visual Impairments

The 44 institutions of higher education that prepare teachers of students with visual impairments in North America are deeply committed to providing the best possible education for their candidates. Whether undergraduate, graduate, or certificate programs, core courses for preparing teachers of students with visual impairments are similar among these institutions (Ambrose-Zaken & Bozeman, 2010). Each program offers educational foundations courses, methods courses, and student teaching or practicum seminars, along with courses about assistive technology, and mobility, assessment, and classroom management. Although preparation programs for teachers of students with visual impairments share common curricula and goals, these programs also share a common challenge--the lack of readily available models of exemplary teaching practice that can be readily viewed and linked to course curricula. In addition, because 42 of the 44 programs incorporate distance learning models, the majority must use multimedia, such as video cases, to communicate course content. To address this national challenge, good-quality videos of best teaching practices in the field are needed. This Research Report presents the findings of the first phase of a multiyear funded project whose ultimate purpose is to clearly define and then create a video clip library of 8- to 10-minute video clips that demonstrate exemplary teaching practices for working with students who are visually impaired (that is, those who are blind or have low vision). These videos would represent elementary to high school settings in the areas of literacy, braille reading and writing, mathematics, the Nemeth Code and abacus, technology, science, and social studies, as well as for working with students with severe and multiple disabilities. The research questions that guided this phase of the project included, What teaching practices are of greatest importance to personnel preparation programs for teachers of students with visual impairments to be included in this video clip library? and How do faculty plan to use these video clips in the preparation of teachers? VIDEO AS A TOOL IN A TEACHER'S DEVELOPMENT As digital video has become more portable, accessible, and affordable than ever, its application to teachers' learning has flourished over the past 10 years. Brouwer's (2011) review of video as a tool in a teacher's development organized its uses into three approaches: orientation, support, and assessment. Support and assessment involve teachers in viewing and reflecting upon their practice either through video records of their own teaching or by observing videos of others (Baecher & Connor, 2010; Gale, Trief, & Lengel, 2010; Sherin & van Es, 2005; Tripp & Rich, 2012). For this project, Brouwer's (2011) use of orientation is relevant because the video clips to be housed in the online library described in this report are intended to be used to illustrate techniques, methods, and practices as a component of a preservice course or an in-service training initiative. The use of video cases in addition to text has been shown to be an effective tool for teacher educators as an introduction to classroom practices that their candidates will later attempt (Copeland & Decker, 1996; Koc, Peker, & Osmanoglu, 2009; Sherin, 2004; Wang & Hartley, 2003; Welsch & Devlin, 2007). By studying specific dimensions of practice through specially designed video cases, teacher candidates gain an enhanced understanding of concepts that are presented in their courses (Skiera & Stirling, 2004). Masingila and Doerr (2002) reported that multimedia cases guide teacher candidates' instructional practices and help connect the candidates' practice with that of the teacher in the video case. METHOD To provide a rich array of video examples of best practices in teaching students who are visually impaired for teacher educators and candidates across the United States, the goal of the funded initiative described here is to provide all candidates who are studying to be teachers of students with visual impairments free access to the video clip library through a password-protected Internet-based site. …

An Alternative Option to Dedicated Braille Notetakers for People with Visual Impairments: Universal Technology for Better Access

Technology provides equal access to information and helps people with visual impairments to complete tasks more independently. A major obstacle to use of assistive technology for people with visual impairments is expense associated with purchasing, maintaining, and updating such technology equipment (Microsoft Corporation, 2004). Sapp (2007) suggested that there are three important elements of technology to be considered for people with visual impairments. These are affordability, accessibility, and usability. Although proprietary technology venues developed for people with visual impairments may have fulfilled needs associated with accessibility well, it is other two critical components for which there is significant room for improvement. Universal design refers to the process of creating products (devices, environments, systems, and processes) which are usable by people with widest possible range of abilities, operating within widest possible range of situations (environments, conditions, and circumstances) (Vanderheiden, 1996, p. 1). The concept of universal design may have potential implications for addressing issues related to use of technology devices by people with visual impairments. More specifically, affordability, accessibility, and usability of technology devices can be successfully addressed by adopting universal design. Among various assistive technology options for people with visual impairments, braille notetakers have been considered most significant because of their technological innovation. Braille notetakers allow users who are visually impaired to retrieve e-mails, access web pages, maintain schedules and calendars, emboss braille documents, and perform math and scientific calculations (Farnsworth & Luckner, 2008). With their capability to utilize speech and braille at same time and to use six-key entry or a traditional QWERTY keyboard, braille notetakers became widely used among people with visual impairments. For example, Edwards and Lewis (1998) reported that almost 25% of teachers in Florida said they used braille notetakers in providing instructions for their students. Various types of techniques in utilizing braille notetakers have been devised. For example, Kapperman and Sticken (2003) reported that braille notetakers could be successfully used to create mathematical equations and could assist students with visual impairments in communicating better with their math teachers. Nemeth code instructions (Amberg, 2001), foreign language translation (Kapperman & Sticken, 2002), and general notetaking and braille translation (Farnsworth & Luckner, 2008) were implemented as significant functions of braille notetakers. A DEDICATED BRAILLE NOTETAKING DEVICE A braille notetaker is a portable device that has built-in refreshable braille display and is designed specifically for people with visual impairments (Samuels, 2008). While having functions similar to mainstream laptop computers and maintaining equivalent connectivity options such as Universal Serial Bus (USB), wireless local area network (LAN), and Bluetooth, it can store electronic documents, translate uncontracted and contracted braille in real time, and allow access to mainstream technology such as reading Microsoft Word and text documents. In a Delphi study conducted by Smith, Kelley, Maushak, Griffin-Shirley, and Lan (2009) on identifying important competencies of assistive technology, use of braille notetakers was regarded as a topic with which teachers of students with visual impairments should be acquainted. Furthermore, one participant of study conducted by Farnsworth and Luckner (2008) indicated that use of braille notetaker positively reshaped his school work and communication with others. This statement exemplifies importance of a braille notetaker for people with visual impairments. Although braille notetakers provide a variety of functions for people with visual impairments, there are some perceived disadvantages as well. …

This Mattered to Me

A Survey of the Current Status of Visually Impaired Students in Secondary Mathematics, by Donald W. Rapp and Audrey J. Rapp, originally published in the February 1992 issue of the Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness, Volume 86, pp. 115-117. When I was asked to take on this project and pick one single article that mattered to me, I found it to be very difficult. I have read The series editor of This Mattered to Me is Stuart H. Wittenstein, Ed.D., superintendent of the California School for the Blind. hundreds of articles from the Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness (JVIB) that have had an impact on my professional career. Like many in the field of visual impairment, I have an array of professional teaching and research interests. Thus, picking just one article on one area of was quite difficult. After much thought, I decided to go back to my roots as an educator: secondary mathematics. My first job was at the Alabama School for the Blind as its secondary mathematics teacher, and it was during my time there that I began a never-ending search for any and all information related to teaching mathematics to students with visual impairments. During this search, I discovered the JVIB article, A Survey of the Current Status of Visually Impaired Students in Secondary Mathematics, by Donald W. Rapp and Audrey J. Rapp, which included the findings of a questionnaire that was answered by teachers of students with visual impairments. Timeless research When I first read the Rapp and Rapp article, it was already eight years old, but it was the only data that existed at that time that discussed the types of mathematics that were being taught to secondary students with visual impairments. The authors conducted a simple survey of teachers of students with visual impairments in six New England states. The survey included questions on which secondary mathematics courses the teachers' students were taking, how the students were aided in their general education mathematics courses, and what tools they utilized. The most profound aspect of the article was the finding that of the 40 students who were reported as using braille as their primary literacy medium, only 19 (over half) were not enrolled in typical secondary mathematics courses. From this finding, one can surmise that either a large proportion of the students studied had cognitive disabilities in addition to their visual impairment that inhibited their abilities to take secondary mathematics courses or that their IEP (Individualized Education Program) teams did not push them to enroll in higher mathematics courses. Although cognitive disabilities may have ruled out higher mathematics for a number of these students, I suspect the latter is true. In my experience in the field of visual impairment, unfortunately, I do not believe that conditions have improved since this article was published. Let this study serve as a reminder that students who are blind need to be encouraged to enroll in higher mathematics courses. The article also highlighted the need for increased teacher training in braille. I was moved by the fact that 73% of the teachers who responded to the survey expressed interest in a workshop to review concepts of algebra, geometry and algebra II, with application of the Nemeth Code (p. …

Lessons from the Development of Computer Braille Code

Since the adoption of English braille in 1932 by the United States, braille has been developed quite often by design, but nearly as often by chance. Nowhere is that more evident than in the development of the Computer Braille Code (CBC) and the aftermath of its development. The very existence of CBC pays tribute to the flexibility with which Louis Braille designed his ingenious system of writing for people who are blind or visually impaired. The genesis of CBC came from the desire to translate and emboss printed texts into braille, using computers to increase both efficiency and the availability of braille materials. Two components were required to accomplish electronic braille translation. First, an embosser had to be created that could accept a symbol from a computer and convert that symbol into an embossable pattern of dots corresponding to a braille character. To use a simple example, the computer sends a symbol, such as the letter a, to the embosser, which must convert that symbol into its corresponding braille character; in this case, 1 of a typical six-dot braille cell. A core concept used in the early development of braille translation technology was that each print symbol sent by a computer to an embosser needed to correspond to one embossed braille character. This requirement worked well with lowercase alphabetic symbols, but uppercase print letters, which required two braille cells (the first braille cell for the capital symbol, dot 6, and the second for the letter itself), introduced a conflict between the capabilities of embossed braille produced by a computer and the proper format of transcribed braille needed by readers. Braille translation software, such as the Duxbury Braille Translator, solved this problem by translating text into contracted braille and supplying any extra needed characters, such as the capital letter or number sign, to the embosser. Embossers, when operated without an intermediary braille translation program, solved the problem by implementing an 8-dot braille symbol set, which included two new dots below dots 3 and 6 of a standard braille cell. Although the creation and implementation of 8-dot braille must remain a story for another time, it is important to understand its place in the context of the divergence between embosser-produced braille and other techniques for braille production. Over time, computer-based braille embossers evolved and, in addition to the job of embossing braille books, embosser units began to appear that could act as computer terminals, allowing blind people to interact directly with computers. These terminals, which were designed to provide embossed braille to computer users (first on paper tape and later on form-fed sheets of braille paper), spawned the creation of an entirely new vocational field for blind people as computer programmers, operators, and information technology specialists. It is no exaggeration to say that these braille terminals opened thousands of new job opportunities for blind people between 1965 and 1980. CHARACTER CONFLICTS As training curricula and manuals were developed to train job applicants, the basic conflict of character representation between the embossed braille in books and the braille code used by computer terminals was unavoidable and became a critical issue. Transcribed training materials had to rely on the Nemeth Braille Code for Mathematics and Science Notation (hereafter, Nemeth Code) and its symbols, the embossed braille of which often did not correspond with the same symbols on the computer terminal. In many cases, Nemeth Code might employ two 6-dot braille cells for a particular character, while a braille terminal would substitute a single 8-dot braille cell instead. For some students, transferring from 6- to 8-dot braille had its challenges, but was reasonably manageable. But for others, the mental gymnastics proved to be more challenging and led to a decreasing number of successful graduates of computer training programs over time. …

Analysis of the Length of Braille Texts in English Braille American Edition, the Nemeth Code, and Computer Braille Code versus the Unified English Braille Code

This study compared the length of text in English Braille American Edition, the Nemeth code, and the computer braille code with the Unified English Braille Code (UEBC)—also known as Unified English Braille (UEB). The findings indicate that differences in the length of text are dependent on the type of material that is transcribed and the grade level of the text. The greater length of text in UEBC was most evident in spatial arithmetic and algebra.

Preparation in and Use of the Nemeth Braille Code for Mathematics by Teachers of Students with Visual Impairments

This study examined the preparation in and use of the Nemeth braille code by 135 teachers of students with visual impairments. Almost all the teachers had taken at least one course in the Nemeth code as part of their university preparation. In their current jobs, they prepared a variety of materials, primarily basic operations, word problems, tactile graphics, and fractions.