Neighborhood Context Research Articles

Parallel Ethnic Identity Development of Mexican-Origin Adolescents and Mothers Under the Influence of Neighborhood Latinx Concentration and Ethnic-Racial Diversity

ABSTRACT Co-ethnic or ethnically-racially diverse neighborhoods can serve as safe and supportive places for U.S. immigrant families to explore and develop clarity about their ethnic identity. Although parents undergo concurrent changes in the adaptation process with their children, existing research has predominantly focused on adolescents, with fewer examination on adult parents’ continued ethnic identity development; additionally, researchers also overlook the impact of neighborhood context on ethnic identity in parents. To fill this gap, this registered study used a three-wave longitudinal dataset of 595 Mexican-origin adolescents and their mothers in central Texas. Latent growth models were used to estimate how ethnic identity (i.e. exploration, centrality, and resolution) changed across time in mother – adolescent dyads. Our findings indicated some level of connectedness in the development of family members’ ethnic identities, particularly in terms of exploration. We also found that mothers’ ethnic identity development was shaped by their neighborhood contexts, with those residing in more diverse neighborhoods being less likely to explore their ethnic identities. Results inform prevention and intervention efforts to promote family collaboration and help immigrant family members develop a positive sense of ethnic identity in the adaptation process.

Green gentrification: a fuzzy-set qualitative comparative analysis of greened neighbourhoods in Berlin

To contribute to the understanding of green gentrification, this study aims to elucidate the factors that contribute to its occurrence or non-occurrence following urban greening, by considering necessary and sufficient factors. The investigation examines several potential characteristics, including the distribution, size, function, transportation connectivity, neighbourhoods’ centrality, and pre-existing availability of green spaces within neighbourhoods. The research employs an embedded case study approach, focusing on Berlin as the primary case. A fuzzy-set qualitative comparative analysis (QCA) is conducted to analyse the notions of necessity and sufficiency. The analysis identifies several sufficient pathways to gentrification, indicating that the neighbourhood context, particularly the initial availability of green spaces in the neighbourhood, plays a crucial role in determining the occurrence of green gentrification. By contrast, no specific type of greening, such as scattered greening approach, park size, function, or transportation connectivity, consistently led to green gentrification.

Applying analytic hierarchy process for site selection of a recreational-educational children complex in Shiraz City, Iran

The development of educational-recreational complexes for children has a significant impact on their cognitive growth and behaviour. Proper site selection is essential to ensure the success of such projects. This paper aims to identify the best location for a children’s educational-recreational complex in Shiraz, Iran. The study used a descriptive-comparative and survey method to determine effective criteria for site selection. A questionnaire was administered to experts in architecture, urban design, and planning to identify appropriate sites. The Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) method was then employed to select the best location. The hierarchical model included three levels: goal (educational-recreational site selection), criteria (natural potential, accessibility, land size, neighbourhood and social context, expansibility, appropriate land use (the neighbourhood between proposed and master plan land use)), and three alternative sites. The results showed that a site located near residential areas, green spaces, and natural elements is suitable for the development of an educational-recreational complex for children. The study recommends the use of the SWOT (strength, weaknesses, opportunities and threats) - AHP method for site selection in children’s complexes. The paper highlights the need for a reliability test or table/figure to support the research findings.

Heterogeneous neighbourhood effects on the educational attainments of native Norwegian and immigrant-descendant female and male young adults

Using longitudinal register data from Oslo, Norway, this article examines how cumulative childhood exposure to family and neighbourhood contexts influences the educational attainments of young adults, paying special attention to how these determinants vary by gender and immigrant status. Specifically, we examine how neighbourhood socioeconomic and immigrant context experienced during childhood affects the completion of secondary school and university enrolment during young adulthood. We assess the extent of effect heterogeneity for three immigrant status groups stratified by gender. We control for geographical selection using a recently developed technique that first models parental selection of neighbourhood attributes and then uses the resulting predicted probabilities of selection as instruments in the neighbourhood-effects-on-education model. We find that neighbourhood affluence, educational levels and non-Western immigrant composition have important impacts on young adult educational outcomes, though results differ sharply by gender and immigrant status.

Histories of neighborhood socioeconomic status contribute to race differences in later-life cognition.

Neighborhood characteristics are increasingly implicated in cognitive health disparities, but no research has investigated how the historical context of neighborhoods shapes these disparities. Four hundred sixty-four Black (55%) and White older adults (Mage=63.6) were drawn from the Michigan Cognitive Aging Project, a community-based, prospective study of older adults. Participants' addresses at baseline (2017-2020) were geocoded and linked to 2000-2017 measures of neighborhood socioeconomic status (NSES): disadvantage [NDis] and affluence [NAff]. Latent class growth analysis (LCGA) characterized 18 interpolated year trajectories of NSES across 1344 census tracts. Path analysis examined whether NSES trajectory classes mediated the association between race and a global cognition composite. LCGA identified three NDis and two NAff trajectory classes, which were associated with participant race. Only one NDis class was associated with cognition, and it mediated the association between the Black race and cognition. Disinvestment in neighborhoods may be particularly salient in race disparities in cognitive function. Race is implicated in the likelihood of living in more disadvantaged neighborhoods. Historical trends in neighborhood disadvantage are associated with cognitive function in older adulthood. Identifying patterns of neighborhood change may inform neighborhood-level interventions.

Well-being and contexts of development of U.S. citizen children in Mexico following parental deportation or voluntary relocation.

When undocumented immigrant parents are deported from the United States, they must decide whether or not to take their U.S.-born and undocumented immigrant children with them, often to countries the children have never visited or know little about. Other parents do not wait to be deported by the government and decide to relocate to their home countries with or without their children. Both sets of families experience relocation but under different circumstances. These differences deserve exploration to understand the psychological and emotional effects on children's well-being. In this cross-sectional study, we explored differences in self-concept, internalizing and externalizing behaviors, as well as the perception of the home, school, and neighborhood contexts of 178 U.S. citizen children (USCC) whose parents returned to Mexico forcibly and voluntarily. Through snowball sampling, we recruited the sample from two bordering Mexican states, Michoacán and the State of Mexico. Significant estimated marginal mean differences in internalizing and externalizing behavior problems, unhappiness, as well as parent-child conflict and support were found between USCC who relocated due to a parental deportation and those USCC whose parents relocated to Mexico voluntarily. Implications for clinicians in Mexico and the United States include recognizing the reasons, timing, decisions, events, and contexts of relocation. Findings can help inform immigration policies, practices, and future research. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Can New Housing Supply Mitigate Displacement and Exclusion?

Problem, research strategy, and findings The housing affordability crisis is exacerbating displacement and exclusion in built-up urban neighborhoods. Although new housing development might help, it faces local opposition. Researchers have struggled to inform this debate because of data challenges, so we constructed a unique database on construction and household-level mobility to determine how development affects displacement and exclusion in the subsequent 5 years in Los Angeles (a typical coastal “hot market” in California) and San Francisco (the extreme “superstar city” case in California). We found that developing new market-rate housing generally helped slightly to alleviate both displacement and exclusion pressures for low-income households in Los Angeles and helped increase in-migration into weaker market neighborhoods in San Francisco. But particularly in the hottest markets, the new market-rate units could fail to spur low- and moderate-income households’ in-migration and exacerbate their out-migration. Likewise, the positive impacts of the new market-rate units may fade over time. Subsidized housing generally mitigated both exclusion and displacement slightly in most markets. Future research should examine long-term effects in a variety of contexts, controlling for the role of housing policies such as rent stabilization. Takeaway for practice Market-rate housing development may help alleviate rent pressures locally and regionally, but it is not sufficient to address displacement and exclusion at the neighborhood level. Because new production helps to mitigate displacement and exclusion in some contexts but exacerbates it in others, planners need to understand the market and neighborhood context for development. In addition to supporting more market-rate and subsidized housing development through zoning and fiscal tools, planners should implement complementary policies such as housing preservation and tenant protections.

Child effects on positive parenting vary with neighborhood opportunity.

Prior theoretical and empirical research has highlighted links between positive parenting and the socioeconomic characteristics of the family's neighborhood, but has yet to illuminate the etiologic origins of this association. One possibility is that the various predictors of parenting outlined by Belsky (1984; e.g., characteristics of the child, characteristics of the parent, and contextual influences) may matter more in some neighborhood contexts than in others. To examine this possibility, we conducted etiologic moderation analyses in a sample of 1,030 families of twins (average age 8 years; 51% male, 49% female; racial composition: 82% White, 10% Black, 1% Asian, 1% Indigenous, and 6% multiracial) from the Twin Study of Behavioral and Emotional Development in Children in the Michigan State University Twin Registry. Neighborhood and parenting were assessed using multiple informants and assessment strategies (neighborhood and family informants, administrative data, and videotaped parent-child interactions). Results pointed to strong evidence of etiologic moderation, such that child effects on positive mothering were prominent in neighborhoods with little opportunity and near zero in neighborhoods with ample opportunity. Such findings not only reframe the magnitude of child effects on the parenting they receive as context-dependent, but also indicate that mothers in impoverished neighborhoods may be more responsive to their children's characteristics than mothers in neighborhoods with ample opportunity. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Religiosity and Fear of Crime Victimization

ABSTRACT In this study, we developed three hypotheses about the role of religiosity in fear of crime victimization. Noting that religiosity and fear of victimization vary significantly by gender, we also examined to what extent religiosity affects fear of victimization by gender. We utilized Wave 2 of the Chapman University fear study. We developed three measures of religiosity: salience, service attendance, and biblical literalism. We used factor analysis to develop four indices of crime victimization: general violent crime; known offender; stranger; and property. We provide correlation and full-model OLS regression results. Biblical literalism is positively correlated with all measures of property crime. Moreover, when separated by gender, we find that the correlations are consistent for females only. In the full models with statistical controls, we find that literalism still has a positive effect on fear of crime victimization measures. However, tests for gender by religiosity interactions were not present in the full models. We further explored interactions between religiosity and neighborhood context and found that biblical literalism increases fear in neighborhoods with above-average crime presence but for female respondents only. Implications for theory and research are discussed.

Where I'm Livin’ and How I'm Feelin’: Associations among community stress, gender, and mental-emotional health among Black Americans

RationaleStructural racism is a primary avenue for the perpetuation of racial health disparities. For Black Americans, both historically and contemporarily, the neighborhood context serves as one of the most striking examples of structural racism, with stressful neighborhood contexts contributing to the well-documented inequalities in psychological functioning among this population. ObjectiveThus, in this study, we adapted an intersectional-ecological framework to investigate the links between community stress and multiple dimensions of mental-emotional health for Black men and women. MethodsDrawing on cross-sectional data from 842 Black Americans from the Milwaukee area, we tested both objective (Area Deprivation Index; ADI) and subjective (perceived neighborhood disadvantage; PND) indicators of community stress as simultaneous predictors of negative and positive affect and the odds of psychological disorder (depression, anxiety) in multilevel models, examining gender differences in these linkages. ResultsResults showed greater objective community stress was related to lower levels of negative affect for both men and women and lower odds of psychological disorder for women specifically. Greater subjective community stress was related to higher levels of negative affect and lower levels of positive affect for both men and women and to higher odds of psychological disorder for women specifically. ConclusionsFindings highlight the complex intersectional nature of the links between community stress and Black Americans' mental-emotional health. Specifically, findings demonstrate the pernicious psychological effects of perceived community stress and allude to Black Americans', particularly women's, active resistance and resilience to objective disadvantage, potentially through investing in social relationships in their neighborhoods.

Toxic air pollution and concentrated social deprivation are associated with low birthweight and preterm Birth in Louisiana * *K T and G S provide scientific support to communities engaged in environmental advocacy, including litigation, through their work at the Tulane Environmental Law Clinic. They receive no compensation for this work outside of employment. M W declares that she has nothing

Previous studies indicate that pollution exposure can increase risks of adverse birth outcomes, but Black communities are underrepresented in this research, and the potential moderating role of neighborhood context has not been explored. These issues are especially relevant in Louisiana, which has a high proportion of Black residents, an entrenched history of structural racism, the most pounds of toxic industrial emissions annually, and among the nation’s highest rates of low birthweight (LBW), preterm birth (PTB), and infant mortality. We investigated whether air pollution and social polarization by race and income (measured via the index of concentration at the extremes [ICE]) were associated with LBW and PTB among Louisiana census tracts (n = 1101) using spatial lag models. Data sources included 2011–2020 birth records, U.S. Census Bureau 2017 demographic data, and 2017 respiratory hazard (RH) from the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Both RH and ICE were associated with LBW (z = 4.4, P < 0.0001; z = −27.0, P < 0.0001) and PTB (z = 2.3, P = 0.019; z = −16.7, P < 0.0001), with no interaction. Severely polluted tracts had 36% higher and 25% higher risks of LBW and PTB, respectively, versus unpolluted tracts. On average, 2166 low birthweight and 3583 preterm births annually were attributable to pollution exposure. Tracts with concentrated social deprivation (i.e. low ICE scores) had 53% higher and 34% higher risks of LBW and PTB, respectively, versus intermediate or mixed tracts. On average, 1171 low birthweight and 1739 preterm births annually were attributable to concentrated deprivation. Our ecological study found that a majority of adverse birth outcomes in Louisiana (i.e. 67% of LBW and PTB combined) are linked to air pollution exposure or disadvantage resulting from social polarization. These findings can inform research, policy, and advocacy to improve health equity in marginalized communities.

Are There Regional Differences in Mental Health among Black Americans? An Exploration of Explanatory Mechanisms.

Using data from the National Survey of American Life (NSAL) (2001-2003), we examine regional differences in past-year anxiety disorder and past-year major depressive episodes among a geographically diverse sample of Black Americans (N = 3,672). We find that Black Americans residing in the South experience a mental health advantage over Black Americans living in other parts of the country, experiencing lower rates of both anxiety disorder and past-year major depression. We also examine the extent to which stress exposure, religious involvement, and neighborhood contexts help explain any regional differences. We find that stress exposure helps to explain much of the differences observed across regions, while religious involvement and neighborhood contexts help explain observed regional differences to a lesser extent. These findings highlight the importance of considering regional contexts in understanding intra-racial differences in mental health.

Understanding neighborhood income segregation around the clock using mobile phone ambient population data

This study examines the temporal changes in income segregation within the ambient population around the clock using mobile phone big data. It employs ordinal entropy, a metric suited for measuring segregation among ordered groups, to quantify the level of segregation among eight income groups within micro-geographic units throughout the 24-h period on a weekday and a weekend day in the urban core of Guangzhou, China. The study further decomposes daily segregation by location and time profile. We identify urban functions and neighborhood contexts relevant for income segregation and explore their temporal variation. Using group-based trajectory analysis, we classify daily segregation trends among 400 m urban grids into seven distinct trajectories for both weekday and weekend. Our findings confirm that segregation fluctuates constantly. The role of local urban functions, particularly retail, accommodation, and offices, and neighborhood context, such as the number of residents and the share of non-local migrants, exhibits a significant temporal rhythm. The seemingly convoluted 24-h segregation time series among urban grids follow just a few distinct trajectories with clear geographical patterns. There is limited variability at individual grids both over the course of a day and across days. Shifts across different trajectory types between weekday and weekend are rare. The dynamic daily segregation in the ambient population per se may be an enduring characteristic of neighborhoods and a real-time channel for neighborhood contextual influences, potentially fueling long-term residential segregation and neighborhood change.

The myth of Australia’s migrant youth gang: examining the perceived association between ethnicity and gangs

ABSTRACT In Australia, as with other countries around the world, migrant young people receive significant media and political attention as the alleged perpetrators of significant criminal activity. This has been a consistent feature over time, with ‘Asian gangs’ in the 1990s in the US, UK and Australia, ‘Middle-Eastern gangs’ around the time of 9/11, ‘Turkish gangs’ and ‘Albanian gangs’ in the UK and Europe, and ‘African gangs’ in Australia since the early 2000s. In this research, we investigate the risk factors associated with youth gang membership in Australia. Using data from the Australia Youth Safety Survey from 2,945 young people aged 14–25 years, we examine the importance of first- and second-generation migrant status on gang membership. After controlling for known risk factors, we find that migrant status was not a predictor of gang membership. Results offer important insights into the prominence of morality and self-control as protective factors against youth gang membership, and speak to the role of neighbourhood context in which the young person lives.

From neighborhood contexts to human behaviors: Cellphone-based place visitation data contribute to estimating neighborhood-level depression prevalence in the United States

The elucidation of neighborhood-level mental illness is pivotal to effective community need assessment and public health interventions. However, aggregating individual behaviors linked to mental health at the neighborhood level has proven to be a challenge. In this study, we collected place visitation data from extensive mobile phone records as a proxy measure of health behaviors to investigate whether and how the place visitation data can contribute to improving the estimation of nationwide neighborhood-level depression prevalence. Using nationwide place visitation data from 2019, we measured eight types of health behaviors at the neighborhood level in the United States, including positive and negative health behaviors (PNHB) and health service utilization behaviors (HSUB). The study revealed that visitations to different types of places of interest (POI) (i.e., fitness visitation, drinking place (alcoholic beverages) visitation, pharmacy visitation, general hospital visitation, and specialty hospital visitation) were significantly associated with neighborhood-level depression. Incorporating cellphone-based place visitation data (i.e., the proxy of health behaviors) into the models enhanced modeling fitness, with the model that included neighborhood context variables exhibiting the strongest fitness, followed by PNHB, POI features, and HSUB variables. These improvements are greater in models for self-reported mental health status compared to depression. The model fitness exhibits spatial differences, with smaller differences between actual and predicted values in urban areas (2.834) compared to rural areas (2.956) and the Midwest (2.212) compared to other regions. Overall, this study represents the first nationwide investigation of the role of cellphone-based place visitation data in estimating neighborhood-level depression prevalence. It expands a novel conceptual framework for explicating neighborhood-level depression prevalence by incorporating neighborhood-level health behaviors.

Sociodemographic Factors are Associated with Care Delivery and Outcomes in Pediatric Severe Sepsis.

Sepsis is a leading cause of morbidity and mortality in the United States and disparate outcomes exist between racial/ethnic groups despite improvements in sepsis management. These observed differences are often related to social determinants of health (SDoH). Little is known about the role of SDoH on outcomes in pediatric sepsis. This study examined the differences in care delivery and outcomes in children with severe sepsis based on race/ethnicity and neighborhood context (as measured by the social vulnerability index). This retrospective, cross-sectional study was completed in a quaternary care children's hospital. Patients 18 years old or younger who were admitted between May 1, 2018, and February 28, 2022, met the improving pediatric sepsis outcomes (IPSO) collaborative definition for severe sepsis. Composite measures of social vulnerability, care delivery, and clinical outcomes were stratified by race/ethnicity. The primary outcome of interest was admission to the PICU. Secondary outcomes were sepsis recognition and early goal-directed therapy (EGDT). A total of 967 children met the criteria for IPSO-defined severe sepsis, of whom 53.4% were White/non-Hispanic. Nearly half of the cohort (48.7%) required PICU admission. There was no difference in illness severity at PICU admission by race (1.01 vs. 1.1, p = 0.18). Non-White race/Hispanic ethnicity was independently associated with PICU admission (odds ratio [OR] 1.35 [1.01-1.8], p = 0.04). Although social vulnerability was not independently associated with PICU admission (OR 0.95 [0.59-1.53], p = 0.83), non-White children were significantly more likely to reside in vulnerable neighborhoods (0.66 vs. 0.38, p < 0.001). Non-White race was associated with lower sepsis recognition (87.8% vs. 93.6%, p = 0.002) and less EGDT compliance (35.7% vs. 42.8%, p = 0.024). Non-White race/ethnicity was independently associated with PICU admission. Differences in care delivery were also identified. Prospective studies are needed to further investigate these findings.

Decision Making in the Real World: Unpacking the Black Box of the Decision Process for Youth Violence

Criminologists typically test rational choice theory by examining the relationship between one aspect of decision making—the perceived costs and benefits of crime—and the likelihood of crime, primarily using (experimental) surveys that lack consideration of the neighborhood context. Building on decades of research in the risk and decision sciences, the current study utilizes broader models of decision making to qualitatively examine how youth living in concentrated disadvantage make decisions during incidents of violence. Our thematic analysis of 22 in-depth interviews with youth in a midsize midwestern city indicates that the decision process regarding violence is much more complex than previously theorized.

An Exploration of Rural Housing Insecurity as a Public Health Problem in California's Rural Northern Counties.

Although widely acknowledged as an important social determinant of health, until recently researchers and policymakers have primarily approached housing insecurity as an urban issue, obscuring the visibility of its impacts in rural contexts, including the ways in which housing insecurity intersects with other health and structural inequities facing rural populations. Working to address this gap in the existing literature, this paper explores the experiences of housing insecurity in a rural context by reporting on an analysis of 210 in-depth interviews with 153 adults between the ages of 18-35, living in California's rural North State, a relatively overlooked far northern region of the state comprised of 12 north central and north eastern counties. Using in-depth qualitative interview data, we conducted an exploratory pattern-level analysis of participants' narratives structured by four dimensions of housing insecurity defined in the literature (housing affordability, housing stability, housing conditions, and neighborhood context). Drawing attention to the pervasiveness of rural housing insecurity within our sample, this analysis highlights the unique ways in which rurality creates distinct experiences not currently captured in the existing literature. Further research is needed across different types of rural communities to better understand the various ways that housing insecurity affects the everyday lives and health of rural residents. By grounding research within the experiences of rural residents, we are better able to respond to the crisis of rural housing insecurity and develop solutions that are tailored to rural residents' unique needs.

Comparing two measures of neighborhood quality and internalizing and externalizing behaviors in the adolescent brain cognitive development study.

There is widespread recognition of the importance and complexity of measuring neighborhood contexts within research on child psychopathology. In this study, we assessed the cross-sectional associations between two measures of neighborhood quality and internalizing and externalizing behaviors in preadolescence. Drawing on baseline data from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development Study (n = 10,577 preadolescents), we examined two multi-component assessments of neighborhood quality in relation to children's internalizing and externalizing symptoms: the Area Deprivation Index (ADI), which measures socioeconomic adversity, and the Child Opportunity Index 2.0 (COI), which measures economic, educational, and environmental opportunity. Both measures were categorized into quintiles. We then used mixed-effects linear regression models to examine bivariate and adjusted associations. The bivariate associations displayed strong inverse associations between the COI and ADI and externalizing symptoms, with a graded pattern of fewer externalizing behaviors with increasing neighborhood quality. Only the ADI was associated with externalizing behaviors in models adjusted for child and family characteristics. We did not observe a clear association between either measure of neighborhood quality and internalizing behaviors in bivariate or adjusted models. Neighborhood quality, as measured by the COI and ADI, was associated with externalizing behaviors in preadolescent children. The association using the ADI persisted after adjustment for family-level characteristics, including financial strain. Our results indicate that different assessments of neighborhood quality display distinct associations with preadolescent behavioral health. Future research is needed to assess the association between neighborhood quality and behavior trajectories and to identify place-based intervention strategies.

Social Disconnectedness, Perceived Loneliness, and Cognitive Functioning: The Role of Neighborhood Environment.

Social disconnectedness and loneliness pose significant challenges for older Chinese immigrants. Yet, it remains unclear whether they are associated with an increased risk of cognitive decline in this population. This study aimed to investigate the association of social disconnectedness and loneliness with cognitive functioning and examine the moderation role of neighborhood contexts. This longitudinal analysis examined a sample of individuals aged 60 years and older from the Population Study of Chinese Elderly in Chicago (N = 2,044). Global cognition was assessed using the averaged z-scores of cognitive performance tests. Social disconnectedness was constructed using 5 indicators about structural aspects of social relationships. Loneliness was assessed with the R-UCLA loneliness scale. Neighborhood socioeconomic status (NSES) and neighborhood segregation index were constructed using 2010-2014 American Community Survey data at the census tract level. Individual perceptions about neighborhood environments were used to construct neighborhood cohesion index and neighborhood disorder index (NDI). Latent growth curve models with adjusted cluster robust standard errors were estimated. More loneliness was associated with a higher level of initial cognitive functioning (B = 0.030, p < .01), but also with a faster decline rate over time (B = -0.007, p < .01) after adjusting for covariates. High NSES and less neighborhood segregation buffered the negative effects of loneliness on cognitive decline, respectively. High NDI amplified the positive relationship between loneliness and initial functioning, but accelerated the rate of cognitive decline associated with loneliness. The study revealed that perceived loneliness, but not social disconnectedness, is a risk factor for cognitive decline among older Chinese immigrants. Living in a neighborhood with low socioeconomic status, more segregation, and high disorder elevated the detrimental effect of loneliness on long-term cognitive decline. Further research needs to investigate the complex interplay between social relationships, neighborhood environment, and cognition.