Neighborhood Community Research Articles

Examining the Influence of the Neighborhood Environment on Stress Among Black American Adolescents: A Scoping Review

The prevalence of mental health challenges continues to worsen among adolescents, with Black American adolescents experiencing rates of suicide attempts that are increasing faster than any other racial and ethnic groups. Research has found that the neighborhood environment impacts mental health through the type and level of stress that people experience generally. More is yet to be known, however, about the biological and psychological impacts of the neighborhood environment on stress among Black American adolescents. This study used a scoping review to explore the neighborhood environment’s contribution to stress among Black American adolescent’s, specifically. Seven bibliographic databases were used to identify relevant studies. Ten articles met eligibility criteria and were included in this review. Findings reveal that the biological stress response to neighborhood poverty and community violence has implications for mental and behavioral health functioning in adolescence. Implications for future research and interventions are discussed.

Determination of polycyclic aromatic compounds from a solid-waste dumpsite fire smoke using hollow-fibre membranes sampling coupled to gas chromatography and mass spectrometry

ABSTRACT Improperly managed solidwaste dumpsites are a potential time bomb as these can pose serious deleterious hazards to the neighbouring communities. This was the case in Maseru Lesotho one warm afternoon when the dumpsite caught fire with no clear human activity, producing dark smoke that covered the residential area around the site. The current study reports the use of simple passive samplers composed of polypropylene hollow fibre membranes impregnated with dodecane for screening of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in this dumpsite fire smoke. The fibres were suspended at different sampling locations at the dumpsite and inside and outside the surrounding households and left there to sample for 6 hours after which 1-cm pieces were placed in headspace vials for desorption and further analysed by gas chromatography and mass spectrometry. The detected compounds were annotated using the NIST 2017 MS library comparison and the following compounds were found: acenaphthene, naphthalene, biphenylene, flourene, phenanthrene, flouranthene, benzoflouranthene, pyrene and clopentapyrene. Given there were no standards available, the compounds could not be quantified. Nonetheless, the results demonstrated the potential for a simple hollow-fibre liquidphase microextraction technique for use in the screening of PAHs in smoke. Most importantly, they reflect the importance of negative impact of the dumpsite smoke being so rich in these compounds that have been classified as carcinogens.

Naloxone Saves Lives

In the Know| June 2023 Naloxone Saves Lives Steve Shafer, MD, FASA, Editor-in-Chief Steve Shafer, MD, FASA, Editor-in-Chief Search for other works by this author on: This Site PubMed Google Scholar ASA Monitor June 2023, Vol. 87, 1–4. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.ASM.0000938768.50606.d8 Views Icon Views Article contents Figures & tables Video Audio Supplementary Data Peer Review Share Icon Share Facebook Twitter LinkedIn Email Cite Icon Cite Get Permissions Search Site Citation Steve Shafer; Naloxone Saves Lives. ASA Monitor 2023; 87:1–4 doi: https://doi.org/10.1097/01.ASM.0000938768.50606.d8 Download citation file: Ris (Zotero) Reference Manager EasyBib Bookends Mendeley Papers EndNote RefWorks BibTex toolbar search Search Dropdown Menu toolbar search search input Search input auto suggest filter your search All ContentAll PublicationsASA Monitor Search Advanced Search Topics: naloxone, drugs, non-prescription Death from the COVID-19 pandemic was not limited to mortality from respiratory illness. According to the National Institute on Drug Abuse, more than 68,000 died from opioid overdose in 2020, and more than 80,000 died from opioid overdose in 2021 (asamonitor.pub/3mbLWqY). Surging opioid deaths is among the many causes of excess mortality associated with the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic. Investigators at the University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee used spatiotemporal analysis of opioid overdoses from 2017 through 2020 to causally link the rise in opioid overdoses to the onset of the pandemic (J Urban Health 2022;99:316-27). While all communities experienced an increase in opioid overdoses with the onset of the pandemic, Black and Hispanic communities in poor urban neighborhoods were disproportionately affected compared to affluent suburban White neighborhoods. The surge in opioid deaths is partly due to the growing street use of synthetic opioids. Two-thirds of overdose deaths in 2022 were... You do not currently have access to this content.

The relative importance of drought stress and neighbor richness on plant–plant interactions shifts over a short time

Exploring how plant–plant interactions between species and their neighbors vary with biotic and abiotic factors is vital to understanding community assembly mechanisms in the context of global changes. In this study, using a dominant species (Leymus chinensis (Trin.) Tzvel.) in the semiarid Inner Mongolia steppe as the target species and ten other species as neighbors, we carried out a microcosm experiment to evaluate how drought stress, neighbor richness and season affected the relative neighbor effect (Cint) (the ability to reduce growth of target species). The factor of season interactively affected the effect of drought stress or neighbor richness on Cint. In the summer, drought stress decreased Cint directly and indirectly by decreasing SLA hierarchical distance and neighbor biomass. In the subsequent spring, drought stress increased Cint, and neighbor richness increased Cint directly and indirectly by increasing neighbor community functional dispersion (FDis) and neighbor biomass. Specifically, SLA hierarchical distance was positively associated with neighbor biomass, while height hierarchical distance was negatively associated with neighbor biomass in both seasons, which increased Cint. These findings show that the relative importance of drought stress and neighbor richness on Cint shifted over seasons, which provides strong empirical evidence of how plant–plant interactions respond to changes in biotic and abiotic factors in the semiarid Inner Mongolia steppe over a short-term time. Furthermore, this study provides novel insight into community assembly mechanisms in the context of climatic aridity and biodiversity loss in semiarid regions.

A New Exploration of Artistic Participation by Local Residents of Barcelona: “Utopia House Museum” Community Arts Education Practice Project

Utopia House Museum is a community art education project. In the context of the growing worldwide emphasis on the concept of arts and cultural education, the current state of arts participation among local citizens in Barcelona is still not promising. To address this issue, the concept of "Museum-House" is developed with the aim of bringing museums into the community and creating an outreach of museums in the community. However, it is more easily adapted to the needs of the community than the museum and radiates to the neighboring communities. Through an arts education program called Utopia House Museum, the community's issues and needs are addressed through community collaboration on craft and creative arts activities. The physical space of this project is offered to the community not only as a museum space, but also as a community cultural space with certain living areas that change according to the needs of the neighborhood. This is a utopian museum project that emerges from the idea of home and adds new ideas to the current public participation in art and cultural practices.

Preparation of Population Data Base for Community Unit 11 East Pamulang Village, Pamulang District South Tangerang City

Village and sub-district administration, neighborhood unit functions to record population data and other government administration services, maintain security, support, and inter-living harmony, generate ideas in the implementation of development by developing the aspirations and genuine self-help of the community, and activating self-help cooperation and participation of the community members in their area. So that the purpose of implementing AbdiMas is to increase understanding of simple technology in processing population databases in neighborhood units and Community Unit 11 East Pamulang Village administrators. The method used is Active and Participatory Learning with material discussions, practices, and demonstrations. The results of the training and database input based on all available information provide a very simple understanding of technological knowledge using Microsoft Office Excel and add broad insight to local neighborhood units and Community Unit 11 administrators on the importance of inputting databases to facilitate all the interests and aspirations of the community for the implementation of village government as well as the village. Overall, 90% of the neighborhood and Community Unit 11 administrators understand the use and input of databases using Microsoft Excel, making it easier to formulate policies related to education, health, economy, and social affairs, the government of East Pamulang Village, South Tangerang City.

Appraisal of Community’s Sense of Social Support and Social Distancing Measures in Combating COVID-19 Pandemic in Residential Neighbourhoods of Akure, Nigeria

This study used the Sense of Community Index 2 (SCI-2) designed by McMillan & Chavis (1986). However, the SOC indices were slightly modified to account for issues relating to the current pandemic, which was not captured in the McMillian & Chavis study. This paper reports on the relationship between preventive measures to reduce the spread of the pandemic and residents' sense of community in poor neighbourhoods during the COVID-19 pandemic. Questionnaires were administered to household heads of selected poor residential neighbourhoods in Akure, Nigeria, and subjected to frequency distribution and the Pearson moment coefficient analysis to determine the relationship between social distancing and sense of community during the pandemic. The majority of the respondents (99.6%) were aware of the pandemic, and 92.3% adhered to one or more safety measures (personal hygiene, mask, curfew, isolation, and lockdown). The findings also revealed a significant (p=0.05) correlation between a sense of belonging and adherence to pandemic prevention measures in the study area. Therefore, it is essential that decision-makers take into account not only the socioeconomic characteristics of people but also the social concept of their daily existence when determining social policy and service delivery.

Money, Economic Abuse, and Food Insecurity: A Qualitative Study among Young Nigerian Women with a History of Intimate Partner Violence

Intimate partner violence (IPV) occurs in high proportions among young women, with long-lasting adverse health and social outcomes. Recent research findings suggest that experiencing economic vulnerability may influence the ways in which young women experience or are at risk for IPV, including economic abuse. Economic abuse, a form of IPV, involves a partner’s control over money and other economic resources or activities. This study explored economic vulnerability and IPV, including economic abuse, among young Nigerian women reporting a recent history of IPV. In-depth interviews (n = 25) were conducted with women aged 18–30 years who had experienced IPV in the past year. Women were recruited from community and health facilities in low-income neighborhoods of Ibadan, Nigeria. A semi-structured interview guide was used to gather data on women’s economic vulnerability (e.g., food security, living situation, employment/education opportunities, family financial support, economic independence) and experiences of IPV. An analysis was conducted using a thematic analysis approach. The coding scheme was based on interview protocols, adding open codes from emergent themes identified in the interviews. On average, participants were 21 years old, most had children (68%) and reported to be cohabitating with a male partner (56%), and 48% had less than a secondary level of education. Among the emergent themes, women reported economic vulnerability as being financially dependent on a male partner for basic needs. Among this sample, economic vulnerability was exacerbated by limited education, training, and work opportunities, and a disproportionate burden of household labor. Economic vulnerability precipitated all forms of IPV, including economic abuse, as well as sexual and pregnancy coercion. Economic abuse was reported to occur when male partners controlled household finances and denied women adequate allowance to purchase household food, including food for children. Findings from this qualitative study suggest that interventions promoting educational and employment opportunities may be critical to reducing financial reliance on male partners and young women’s vulnerability to economic abuse and other forms of IPV. More research and programmatic work are needed on food deprivation as a form of economic abuse affecting women and their children.

County-Level Maternal Vulnerability and Preterm Birth in the US

Appreciation for the effects of neighborhood conditions and community factors on perinatal health is increasing. However, community-level indices specific to maternal health and associations with preterm birth (PTB) have not been assessed. To examine the association of the Maternal Vulnerability Index (MVI), a novel county-level index designed to quantify maternal vulnerability to adverse health outcomes, with PTB. This retrospective cohort study used US Vital Statistics data from January 1 to December 31, 2018. Participants included 3 659 099 singleton births at 22 plus 0/7 to 44 plus 6/7 weeks of gestation born in the US. Analyses were conducted from December 1, 2021, through March 31, 2023. The MVI, a composite measure of 43 area-level indicators, categorized into 6 themes reflecting physical, social, and health care landscapes. Overall MVI and theme were stratified by quintile (very low to very high) by maternal county of residence. The primary outcome was PTB (gestational age <37 weeks). Secondary outcomes were PTB categories: extreme (gestational age ≤28 weeks), very (gestational age 29-31 weeks), moderate (gestational age 32-33 weeks), and late (gestational age 34-36 weeks). Multivariable logistic regression quantified associations of MVI, overall and by theme, with PTB, overall and by PTB category. Among 3 659 099 births, 298 847 (8.2%) were preterm (male, 51.1%; female, 48.9%). Maternal race and ethnicity included 0.8% American Indian or Alaska Native, 6.8% Asian or Pacific Islander, 23.6% Hispanic, 14.5% non-Hispanic Black, 52.1% non-Hispanic White, and 2.2% with more than 1 race. Compared with full-term births, MVI was higher for PTBs across all themes. Very high MVI was associated with increased PTB in unadjusted (odds ratio [OR], 1.50 [95% CI, 1.45-1.56]) and adjusted (OR, 1.07 [95% CI, 1.01-1.13]) analyses. In adjusted analyses of PTB categories, MVI had the largest association with extreme PTB (adjusted OR, 1.18 [95% CI, 1.07-1.29]). Higher MVI in the themes of physical health, mental health and substance abuse, and general health care remained associated with PTB overall in adjusted models. While the physical health and socioeconomic determinant themes were associated with extreme PTB, physical health, mental health and substance abuse, and general health care themes were associated with late PTB. The findings of this cohort study suggest that MVI was associated with PTB even after adjustment for individual-level confounders. The MVI is a useful measure for county-level PTB risk that may have policy implications for counties working to lower preterm rates and improve perinatal outcomes.

Modeling the Neighborhood Wellbeing of Townships in South Africa

Townships in South Africa are characterized by underdeveloped urban neighborhoods on the periphery of cities, where their inhabitants suffer from a poor quality of life. Given the relative lack of empirical research on the wellbeing of people living in townships in South Africa, this study attempts to fill the gap by understanding and modeling the relationships between household socioeconomic characteristics, housing and neighborhood conditions, and individual and community wellbeing to develop and empirically validate a neighborhood wellbeing framework. The hypothesized associations from the wellbeing framework were tested using 389 household interviews of the three largest townships in South Africa. The findings identify the challenges associated with adequate housing and lack of infrastructure in townships and how these affect the wellbeing of individuals and communities. The conclusion demonstrates how the neighborhood wellbeing framework, as an interdisciplinary approach, can improve the quality of life of inhabitants and communities in urban neighborhoods in general.

Urban neighbourhood elements that influence psychoactive substance use among populations with adverse childhood experiences: a scoping review protocol

IntroductionAdverse childhood experiences (ACEs) are stressful or traumatic events experienced before the age of 18 years old. ACEs have been associated with an increased risk for substance use in adulthood....

Design and development of green energy microgrids for Agro-processing to minimize food waste in smallholder farms

This study explores the design, deployment, and evaluation of a green energy microgrid for Agro-processing in smallholder farms, integrating renewable energy sources such as solar photovoltaics, wind turbines, and biomass. The primary goal was to address the energy challenges that smallholder farmers face, particularly in relation to post-harvest losses, operational costs, and environmental sustainability. The study utilized a hybrid system that combined energy generation from solar, wind, and biomass, supported by lithium-ion batteries for storage, to ensure a stable power supply throughout the year. The results demonstrated that the microgrid was effective in meeting the energy needs of Agro-processing units, including milling, drying, and cooling. Energy generation from solar and biomass was highest during peak harvest months, while wind energy provided a consistent, though smaller, contribution. The microgrid enabled significant reductions in post-harvest losses, averaging around 40% across the year, by ensuring timely drying and cooling of agricultural products. Moreover, the system achieved a 74–76% reduction in operational costs compared to traditional diesel generators, largely due to the elimination of fuel costs and reduced maintenance requirements. In terms of environmental impact, the microgrid reduced greenhouse gas emissions by more than 70%, contributing to the broader goals of climate change mitigation and sustainable agriculture. The use of biomass also contributed to waste reduction by converting agricultural residues into energy, supporting a circular economy model. The study further highlighted the socio-economic benefits of the microgrid, including job creation, local economic growth, and the potential for energy surplus sales to neighboring communities. These findings suggest that green energy microgrids are a viable, sustainable solution for improving energy access and food security in rural agricultural settings

Neighborhood social cohesion and obesity in the United States

Low neighborhood social cohesion (nSC) has been associated with obesity. Still, few studies have assessed the nSC-obesity relationship among a large, nationally representative, and racially/ethnically diverse sample of the United States population. To address this literature gap, we examined cross-sectional associations among 154,480 adult participants of the National Health Interview Survey (NHIS) from 2013 to 2018. We also determined if associations varied by race/ethnicity, sex/gender, age, annual household income, and food security status. Based on a 4-item scale from the Project on Human Development in Chicago Neighborhoods Community Survey, we categorized nSC as low, medium, and high. Based on body mass index (BMI) recommendations, we categorized obesity as ≥30 kg/m2. We used Poisson regression with robust variance to directly estimate prevalence ratios (PRs) and 95 % confidence intervals (CIs) while adjusting for sociodemographic characteristics, such as annual household income, educational attainment, and marital status, along with other confounders. Study participants' mean age ± standard error was 47.1 ± 0.1 years; most (69.2 %) self-identified as Non-Hispanic (NH)-White; and 51.0 % were women. NH-Black and Hispanic/Latinx adults comprised more of the population in neighborhoods with low nSC (14.0 % NH-Black, 19.1 % Hispanic/Latinx, and 61.8 % NH-White) versus high nSC (7.7 % NH-Black, 10.4 % Hispanic/Latinx and 77.0 % NH-White). Low vs. high nSC was associated with a 15 % higher prevalence of obesity (PR = 1.15 [95 % CI: 1.12–1.18]), and the magnitude of the association was more substantial among NH-White adults (PR = 1.21 [95 % CI: 1.17–1.25]) compared to associations among Hispanic/Latinx (PR = 1.04 [95 % CI: 0.97–1.11]) and NH-Black (PR = 1.01 [95 % CI: 0.95–1.07]) adults. Low vs. high nSC was associated with a 20 % higher prevalence of obesity in women (PR = 1.20 [95 % CI: 1.16–1.24]) compared to a 10 % higher prevalence in men (PR = 1.10 [95 % CI: 1.06–1.14]). Low vs. high nSC was associated with a 19 % higher prevalence of obesity among adults ≥50 years old (PR = 1.19 [95 % CI: 1.15–1.23]) compared to a 7 % higher prevalence of obesity among adults <50 years old (PR = 1.07 [95 % CI: 1.03–1.11]). Efforts to address nSC may improve health and address health disparities.

Neighborhood group chats as a subject of offline sociology

Neighborhood group chats have become an inseparable attribute of most urban localities. Despite their significant role in the processes of neighborhood communication and the construction of local communities, this phenomenon has been little comprehended by social science. The purpose of this article is to offer variants of adaptation of some sociological approaches to the analysis of the phenomenon of neighborhood chats. The nature of neighborhood chat as an institutional and communication-oriented tool for information exchange is described. The classification of neighborhood chats according to the level of their closeness is given. The forms of control in the selection of participants in closed versions of neighborhood chats are explained. The communicative side of neighborhood chat is proposed to be considered through the prism of E. Goffman’s “dramaturgy”. Conceptualizations of the basic concepts of “dramaturgy” in the context of digital neighborhood interaction are proposed. The complicated nature of neighborhood chat as a technological and social phenomenon is analyzed using the actor-network theory approach. The identification of neighborhood chat as an “actor-network” has been substantiated. The functional side of neighborhood chat as a mechanism of assemblage of neighborhood communities is considered in correlation with R. Oldenburg’s concept of the “third place”. It is shown that the neighborhood chat, being rather a digital simulation of the “third place”, can potentially compensate for the lack of real public spaces in the conditions of typical development, launching and supporting the processes of integration on the locality.

Dewey, Implementation, and Creating a Democratic Civic University

Dewey, Implementation, and Creating a Democratic Civic University

Material Flow and Waste Recovery in a Community-Based Waste Management System in Batu, Indonesia

Indonesian government has promoted to establish Community Based Waste Management (CBWM) in Indonesia to increase the resource recovery rate and to reduce the amount of landfilling waste in stead of conventional the waste management. In CBWM, recyclable materials are recovered by neighborhood communities and only the residual waste is landfilled. Although CBWM can contribute to the reduction of green house gas emission and conservation of resources, the effectiveness of CBWM on the reduction of waste is an clear due to a lack of detailed information about CBWM such as economic benefit, waste flow and its sustainability. The aims of this study are to identify the waste flow in common CBWM in Indonesia and to evaluate the effectiveness of CBWM for reduction of MSW carried to a landfill site. The TPS3R Dadaprejo Mandiri (DM-TPS) in Dadaprejo Village, Batu City, Indonesia was investigated as a case of CBWM. Waste composition was surveyed for 8 consecutive days on three separate occasions in 2021 and 2022. Each resource was weighed and measured at each step of the process to analyze waste flow. Monthly data summarizing the amount of each resource separated at DM-TPS was obtained from their records. Information about the amount of waste and resources collected by the 13 waste banks was obtained by interviewing the administrators of those waste banks. The amount of waste carried to DM-TPS during the first, second, and third surveys averaged 5.61, 6.65, and 5.40 t/day, respectively. Of the 9 categories of waste, the largest was the organic waste. Fruits and vegetables made up the largest percentage of resources followed by plastic bags. The average resource recovery rate was approximately 15.2%. However, the composition survey revealed that the potential resource recovery rate was approximately 39.5%. In order to increase of resource recovery rate, the corporation of households on simple source separation at home would be required.

CTITORI ȘI BINEFĂCĂTORI AI BISERICILOR ȘI ȘCOLILOR CONFESIONALE ORTODOXE ȘI GRECO-CATOLICE DIN SCAUNELE SECUIEȘTI CIUC, GIURGEU, ODORHEI ȘI TREISCAUNE, ÎN SECOLUL AL XVIII-LEA ȘI PRIMA JUMĂTATE A SECOLULUI AL XIX-LEA

The issue of the history of the Romanians from the former Szekler seats of Ciuc, Giurgeu, Odorhei and Treiscaune and of the main identity institutions – the church (Orthodox and Greek Catholic) and the confessional schools that functioned under the auspices of these churches has been little researched. Benefiting from access to ecclesiastical and secular documentary sources, little researched, the present study aims to introduce into the scientific circuit information about the state of places of worship and confessional schools built by members of some Romanian communities with a small number of members, most of them living in ethnically mixed localities, with a numerically majority Szekler/Hungarian population. In these conditions, an important role was played by the solidarity of the Romanians living on both sides of the Carpathians, who we find among the founders of the modest wooden churches, and after 1785, also of stone, and of the confessional school buildings. This solidarity was also manifested between the Romanian communities in the area. When a Romanian community, with a larger number of believers, managed to build a new church, the old one was donated to neighboring communities with few believers, thus witnessing the phenomenon called “traveling churches”. Where communities with a small number of Romanians have not managed to maintain their church, we witness the acceleration of the denationalization process and, finally, the disappearance of these communities. Instead, where it was possible to save the Orthodox and Greek-Catholic churches and the confessional schools in the Romanian language, religion and school were the main factors promoting Christian teaching, religious education, Romanian culture and traditions, thus ensuring the perpetuation of the Romanian identity in -a multi-ethnic and multi-confessional area, in most cases refractory to alterity.

The Missed Fork in the “Forked-Road Situation”

The Missed Fork in the “Forked-Road Situation”

Care as Critique of Care: Public Services, Social Security and Ritual Responsiveness

AbstractSocialist governance and popular sovereignty require state administration of care. In the People's Republic of China (PRC) today, such state care is provided in the form of public services and in the guarantee of social security. Ideally, different levels of government should foster relations of care in local communities and remain responsive to “the people.” Local self-government, relations of mutual support and ritual communities, however, reveal the deficits of state care. Much like general philosophies of care, such local ethics of care propose universal benchmarks against which social practice can be measured. This article outlines the main contours of state care in the post-Mao Zedong PRC, and contrasts its findings with empirical research on public services, social security and ritual responsiveness. Mutual help, neighbourhood communities and ritual practice, in particular, provide alternative models of care. As such, they can be extended and universalized, and offer possibilities for a critique of care.

Using a Data Mining Method to Explore Strategies for Improving the Social Interaction Environment Quality of Urban Neighborhood Open Spaces

With the intensification of population aging and the increasing awareness of public health protection in the post-epidemic era, the renewal of the old urban community neighborhood space is facing many new challenges and problems. Neighborhood Public Open Space (POS) is the main place for people to carry out various social activities in community life. The quality of the social interaction environment that a neighborhood POS can provide can have a vital impact on people’s well-being, as well as their physical and mental health. Therefore, the purpose of this research is to identify and clarify the key physical environmental design attributes/features of the old urban community neighborhood POS, and to explore the relationship between them from the perspective of creating a high-quality social environment. Through the investigation of relevant cases in Shenzhen and Guangzhou, China, the classification performance of each case on the key physical and environmental elements is used as the conditional attribute, and the quality of the social interaction environment in the current situation of each case is used as the decision making attribute to conduct a data mining analysis. Using rough set theory, this study screened out four important elements: greenbelt form planning (C1); ped and bike system (C2); space organization and zoning planning (C6); Public facilities (C8). Moreover, this study also presents a set of hierarchical decision rules to describe the classification status of the matching physical environmental design elements when the social interaction environment reaches a high quality in the neighborhood POS. This study provides local policy makers with key current situation assessment and diagnostic tools in urban-built environmental renewal projects. The results of this study can help designers draw up the renovation design plans of neighborhood POS on the basis of efficiently obtaining the practical experience of relevant cases, and then create a high-quality social interaction environment.