Negotiation Attempts Research Articles

아시아·태평양전쟁기 한미협회의 외교 활동

This study focused on research about the nature and process of Syngman Rhee’s lobbying association, the Korean-American Council’s military petition during the Pacific War. The Korean-American Council desired to receive military aids from the U.S. Government for the Korean Provisional Government(KPG)’s military operations. Also, the council hoped to build the U.S.-Korea alliance by solidifying the military relationship between the KPG and the U.S. Therefore, the council members highlighted the petition for military assistance for Koreans, rather than only requesting approval of the KPG as the official Korean government during negotiation attempts with the U.S. State Department and U.S. military organizations. In the course of negotiation, the U.S. government largely emphasized its military interests related to U.S.-Korean military associations. The characteristics of the negotiations were found as follows. First, During the negotiations, the U.S. Department of State, which was the main target of the Korean-American Council’s diplomacy, did not disregard the negotiation. However, the State Department delivered information about the Korean-American Council’s military petitions to the U.S. military organizations. Thereby, the State Department, despite its plan of Korean Trusteeship, let the Korean-American Council understand the State Department’s favorable opinions on the KPG’s will of carrying out war operations against Japan. Secondly, the Korean-American Council’s military petitions aligned partially with the Korean-U.S. military operation plan prepared by the OSS at the time. This reflects the council members’ awareness of the need to forge the Korean military operations led by the U.S. government. However, there was a task that Korea’s military capacity and reliability had to be demonstrated before practicing the plan devised by OSS. In the course, the Korean-American Council’s military petitions played a certain important role.

Athletic Trainers' Experiences With and Perceptions of Salary Negotiation Decision-Making During the Hiring Process.

Appropriate salaries for athletic trainers (ATs) have been a contentious topic for decades. Although professional advocacy efforts to increase ATs' salaries have gained traction, little is known about ATs' experiences with negotiation during the hiring process. To explore the reasons, influences, and factors influencing ATs' negotiation decisions. Qualitative study. Individual video interviews. Twenty-eight ATs who participated in a previous study and indicated a willingness to participate in the qualitative follow-up were interviewed (17 women, 10 men, 1 nonbinary individual; age = 37.8 ± 8.9 years, athletic training experience = 15.1 ± 8.3 years). Of the 28 participants, 18 did negotiate, whereas 10 did not. An individual video conference interview was conducted with each participant. After transcription, data were analyzed into themes and categories following the consensual qualitative research tradition. To ensure trustworthiness of the findings, we confirmed accuracy through member checks, triangulated the data using multianalyst research teams, and confirmed representativeness by including an external auditor. Four parallel themes emerged during data analysis: factors for determining salary negotiation, reasons for negotiating/not negotiating, negotiation influencers/deterrents, and experiences with negotiation/impact of not negotiating. Negotiators used a variety of data sources to support their requests, and their decisions were motivated by their own known value, the area's cost of living, and their current financial or employment situations. Negotiators relied on previous experiences to guide negotiations and provided successes and regrets from their negotiation experience. Nonnegotiators also used a variety of data types but were deterred by fear of not knowing how to negotiate, of losing the offer, or of offending those involved. Nonnegotiators highlighted a lack of confidence in their ability to negotiate and provided the financial consequences and personal regrets from not negotiating. More training, education, and publicly available data are needed to assist ATs in future negotiation attempts.

Are All Negotiations Equally Favorable? The Role of Adolescents' Negotiation Style, Social Domain, and Mothers' Authoritarian Beliefs and Family History.

Although negotiation is generally considered an adaptive means for adolescents to express disagreement in the parent-child relationship, previous research on the correlates of adolescents' negotiation has reported rather mixed results. This may be because parents do not always positively appraise and respond to adolescents' negotiation. The key aim of the present study was to better understand variability in mothers' appraisals and responses to adolescents' negotiation attempts. This was done by examining whether their appraisals and responses vary as a function of adolescents' negotiation style, social domain, and mothers' personal characteristics (i.e., authoritarian beliefs and their own history of being parented). A total of 476 mothers of 9th and 10th grade adolescents in Belgium (Mage mothers = 44.93 years old, SD = 4.07; Mage adolescents = 14.88, SD = 0.75, 51.7% boys) participated in a vignette-based experimental study. Mothers completed questionnaires assessing authoritarian beliefs and their own history of being parented, and read a vignette-based scenario depicting an adolescent's negotiation attempt. Using a between-person 2 × 2 design, adolescents' negotiation style (autonomy-supportive versus controlling) and social domain (personal versus multifaceted) were experimentally manipulated. Mothers were more likely to positively appraise and respond in more constructive ways if adolescents adopted an autonomy-supportive instead of a controlling negotiation style, and when the situation involved a personal rather than a multifaceted issue. Mothers with high authoritarian beliefs and those with a history of being parented in a psychologically controlling way, had a more negative attitude towards adolescents' negotiation. Overall, the results suggest that the success of adolescents' negotiation depends on how, about what, and with whom they negotiate.

Negotiation Practices of Athletic Training Educators

Context Low salary is often cited as one of the primary motivations for professional attrition in athletic training. The employer usually determines the salary range; however, negotiation can also influence the final salary and benefits of a given position. It is unclear to what extent, if any, athletic training educators negotiate salary or other terms of employment during the hiring process. Objective To explore the negotiation practices of athletic training educators during the hiring process. Design Cross-sectional. Setting Web-based survey. Patients or Other Participants A total of 174 athletic training educators who have held at least one full-time employed position. Main Outcome Measures Demographic factors as well as the current salary range served as independent variables, and participants’ responses to questions about salary and terms of employment negotiation questions were the dependent variables. All variables were characterized using summary statistics, and multiple chi-square analyses (P < .05) were conducted to determine significant relationships between independent variables on negotiation practices. Results Most athletic training educators attempted to negotiate their salary (64.4%) and terms of employment (54%) during the hiring process. The most commonly negotiated terms of employment were moving expenses (58.5%), research-related start-up costs (45.7%), and continuing education funding/reimbursement (42.6%). The influence of demographic factors on the decision to negotiate salary or terms of employment and the relative success of that negotiation varied, with significant findings for previous employment, gender, race, relationship status, number of dependents, age, salary range, and highest degree earned. Conclusions Lack of negotiation disproportionately occurred in those athletic training educators with less work experience, and women inexplicably had less success in negotiation attempts. Widespread training in negotiation strategies is warranted across the athletic training profession, including its educators, and our findings suggest that such training would specifically benefit early-career and women athletic training educators.

Disability in the Colombian Peace Processes of the 21st Century

ABSTRACT This document presents the development of the concept of disability in Colombia, specifically within the framework of the armed conflict and the different negotiation attempts. The article analyses the inclusion of people with disabilities in the Colombian peace processes of the XXI century. Despite the numerous peace processes Colombia has had, people with disabilities are still being excluded from the peace agendas and negotiation phases. The analysis of the last peace process of Havana, will provide an opportunity to truly include people with disabilities in future negotiations.

A Matter of Faith? Negotiations with Boko Haram in Nigeria

Abstract Why are armed conflicts involving warring parties with an Islamist agenda more difficult to resolve through negotiations? In previous research, two main explanations have been put forward; one that highlight the religious element of the parties’ conflict issue and one that emphasis the organizational character of these conflicts, in particular their transnational nature. Yet we still do not know which of these explanations that carry the most explanatory power. The purpose of this article is to test the empirical relevance of these theories through an in-depth study of five negotiation attempts between the government of Nigeria and the group known as Boko Haram during the time period 2011 to 2016. By doing so, this article both addresses one of the key theoretical debates in the scholarly field of religious conflicts and conflict resolution, and presents novel empirical material on a case not well covered in previous negotiation literature.

The gendered pay gap in genetic counseling.

A gendered pay gap in the genetic counseling profession has been identified in recent years, though reasons for its existence have not been explored in depth. The primary aim of this study was to determine what demographic characteristics and career experiences influence annual salary rates and which of those factors differ between male and female genetic counselors. The secondary aim of this study was to determine whether genetic counselors perceive a pay gap and to identify attitudes toward their salaries. Surveys were sent to the nearly 4,000 genetic counselors who are members of the National Society of Genetic Counselors (NSGC), and we report results from 355 respondents. A significant interaction was found between gender and position (direct vs. non-direct patient care). In the best-fitting multiple regression model, male genetic counselors earned $23,736 more than females in non-direct patient care roles (p<.001) and $1,552 more than females in direct patient care roles (p<.001). Years of experience, leadership experience score, negotiation attempts, licensure, and certification were all found to be predictors of annual salary. Most female genetic counselors perceived there to be a pay gap and most male genetic counselors did not (p=.01). Results from this study could contribute to changes in employment and compensation practices, as well as impact genetic counselors' strategies in role- and salary-based conversations.

Battle Stalemates and Rebel Negotiation Attempts in Civil Wars

This manuscript examines how battlefield events influence belligerents’ pursuit of negotiated settlements in civil wars. We argue that successive stalemates are most likely to precipitate rebel demands for negotiations because they offer groups both the opportunity and willingness to push for a compromise settlement. Unlike rebel losses, stalemated battles demonstrate that rebels can offer military resistance to the state. Yet, unlike rebel battle gains, draws do not raise the prospects of a rebel war victory. Using monthly data on rebel demands for negotiations and battle outcomes for 63 African dyads fighting between 1997 and 2010, we find support for this argument; more battlefield stalemates decrease the time until a proposal to negotiate by rebels. Additionally, we examine whether the same battlefield dynamics explain the onset of formal negotiations. The results reveal only a relationship between rebel battle gains and the onset of talks. The contrast in these findings suggests that rebels and governments may conceive of battlefield outcomes, especially stalemates, differently. Although rebels perceive a window of opportunity from a battlefield deadlock, governments appear to be influenced most by rebel gains.

Peace Talks and Valid Spokespersons: Explaining the Onset of Negotiations in Southern Thailand

Abstract There have been several attempts to find negotiated solutions to the armed conflicts in Southern Thailand. Yet, these attempts of accommodation and mediated peace negotiations were aborted without any concrete results, with the exception of a formal peace process being officially launched in 2013. What explains the readiness of the parties to the conflict to enter negotiations at this stage, but not at earlier attempts? We argue that the political context can help to explain why some negotiation attempts result in negotiations, whereas others do not. We analyze the factors behind the readiness of the two sides – the Thai state and the Patani separatist insurgency – to sit down for official peace negotiations, focusing on the presence of valid spokespersons, which is an understudied element of ‘ripeness’. This case demonstrates that the problem of finding valid spokespersons may be an obstacle for peace processes especially in religiously defined conflicts.

Obstacle negotiation attempts by leaping cyprinids indicate bank-side spawning migration routes

Understanding freshwater fish population ecology is a pre-requisite for their conservation, management, and exploitation. Many populations of cyprinids, the largest family of freshwater fish, undertake potamodromous migrations. This has important implications for the conservation and management of their stocks. Habitat and connectivity loss are the main factors threatening these stocks. The fine-scale routes (i.e., banks vs. midchannel) of cyprinid spawning migrations in generally turbid rivers are largely unknown, contrary to other taxa such as salmonids, shads, and eels. In this work, we studied the fine-scale leaping behavior of two cyprinid taxa (Luciobarbus sp., barbels) which support commercial and recreational fisheries. We used fish size and leap distance to the margin as indicative of fine-scale spawning migration routes following the river banks vs. midchannel. The results support the idea that these cyprinids migrate close to the banks, and that the larger adults migrate nearer the banks than the smaller ones. This marks a difference between cyprinids and salmonids, showing that knowledge of cyprinid migration routes can help fisheries managers develop improved, more permeable, barriers and less selective fish pass facilities. Particularly, this behavior of cyprinid species can be applied to optimize the design of fish pass facilities: first, by installing fish passes on each bank of wide rivers, where the large lateral distance may make a single facility difficult to find; and second, by using either a single wider entrance or several narrower entrances distributed over a greater distance from the margins so as to cover the more distant stretch used by the younger adults.

Ultimatum Concession Bargaining

We collect experimental evidence on a modified version of the standard ultimatum game in which the responder states an acceptance threshold below which the offer is rejected and both players, proposer and responder, are allowed several attempts to reach an agreement by conceding. Proposers concede by increasing offers and responders concede by decreasing acceptance thresholds. Treatments differ in whether a further attempt requires that at least one party should have conceded. A further condition varies the number of possible negotiating attempts, namely, 3 versus 5. Behavior in the lab diverges significantly from the theoretical solution in which the proposer is expected to get nearly the whole pie in each treatment. Proposers (responders) initially offer less (ask more) and concede more across negotiation attempts in the treatment in which concessions are required. Moreover, compulsory concessions weaken the bargaining position of the proposer, who eventually gets significantly less. Finally, although concessions significantly improve the likelihood of an agreement compared to standard ultimatum game experiments, the longer negotiation horizon (five attempts instead of three) delays the agreement without enhancing it, even when no concessions are needed.

Services in Regional Trade Agreements: Implications for India

Services in Regional Trade Agreements: Implications for India

Collaborative meaning-making in delusional talk as a search for mutual manifestness

Delusional talk may pose predictable challenges to the hearer in identifying what the speaker intended to communicate, particularly if the speaker presumes the hearer to have access to assumptions based on delusional content. This paper explores delusional talk between participants with schizophrenia and an interlocutor, analysing how meaning is negotiated through achieving access to assumptions that are not initially manifest to the conversation partner. A Relevance Theory approach is taken to the analysis of the data revealing two strategies used by the interlocutor to negotiate meaning. The Relevance Theory notion of mutual manifestness emerges as a powerful explanatory factor. The pursuit of mutual manifestness and a mutual cognitive environment explains the interlocutor’s meaning negotiation attempts, allowing the communicators to ‘align’ and engage in conversation. The interlocutor is also exposed as seeking to exit the delusional talk by moving towards topics which are based on assumptions which are clearly mutually manifest.

The United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights: Conscience for the World ed. by Felice D. Gaer &amp; Christen L. Broecker (review)

Reviewed by: The United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights: Conscience for the World ed. by Felice D. Gaer & Christen L. Broecker Matheus de Carvalho Hernandez (bio) The United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights: Conscience for the World ( Felice D. Gaer & Christen L. Broecker eds., Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 2014), 398 pages (incl. index), ISBN 978-90-04-25424-4. The position of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights was created at the end of 1993 by a unanimous vote in the United Nations General Assembly. The creation of this office was preceded by strong lobbying by NGOs (particularly Amnesty International) and state delegations (primarily the United States) during the Second World Conference on Human Rights, known as the Vienna Conference, in June of 1993. Throughout the Cold War, several negotiation attempts to create this office were hampered, on the one hand by the bipolar conflict between the United States and the Soviet Union—and consequently between the so-called “generations” of human rights—and on the other hand by the still incipient institutional strengthening of the international human rights system. The end of the Cold War, the “thawing” of the UN, and the consolidation of NGOs as international political agents established the conditions for the emergence of this position, which from then on assumed primary responsibility for human rights within the entire political-institutional framework of the UN. Despite the centrality of the position for the institutionalization of human rights within the UN and the fact that, bureaucratically, it has the rank of Under-Secretary General, there are very few studies and analyses on the High Commissioner for Human Rights and the office in the international literature. In this respect, this book is an extremely welcome addition to the small number of other titles on the topic, such as the works of Bertrand Ramcharan and the pioneering doctoral thesis by Roger Clark in 1972. As stated above, the book has its merits. The first, doubtlessly, is its originality. The second is the attempt to cover the most varied aspects of the High Commissioner and the office. In addition to the introduction written by the editors, the book is divided into five well balanced parts. The first part discusses the expectations concerning the work of the mandate holder and the office, analyzing its twenty five years of existence and making recommendations for its future. Besides the articles by the current High Commissioner, Navi Pillay, and the former High Commissioner, Ramcharan, the reflections of Michael Ignatieff on the possibilities for increasing the duties of the High Commissioner and of Harold Koh on the personification and institutionalization process contribute to the literature in the area. The second part addresses a recurring theme in the literature on human [End Page 971] rights: universality. The authors in this section, Michael O’Flaherty and Sunila Abeysekera, focus on how the High Commissioner operationalizes and promotes the principle of universality, or fails to do so, in its work, particularly in relation to the committees that monitor compliance with international human rights treaties (known as Treaty Bodies). In the third part, one of the main contributions of the collection starts to emerge: the little known or studied responses of the Office of the High Commissioner to systematic human rights violations. Felice Gaer, who is extremely knowledgeable about the UN human rights system, recommends that there should be more synergy and cooperation and less disputing and rivalry between the work of the High Commissioner and the Special Procedures. Christen Broecker and William O’Neill make a panoramic analysis of the work conducted by the High Commissioner’s national offices, located in several different countries around the world, demonstrating the political-institutional potential and difficulties of giving local significance to international human rights standards. Tseliso Thipanyane wraps up the third part by describing the relationship between the National Human Rights Institutions and the High Commissioner, the leading enthusiast of these institutions within the institutional framework of the UN. The fourth part is interesting in that it responds to the more skeptical literature concerning the political influences of the UN human rights bodies. Suzanne Nossel and Broecker show how the institutional maturity of the position of High Commissioner...

Learners’ Engagement in Meaning Negotiation and Classroom Interaction as a Function of Their Perceptions of Teachers’ Instructional Communicative Behaviors

A significant share of classroom interaction occurs between teachers and language learners. Therefore, the individual characteristics of teachers could play facilitative or impeding roles thus encouraging or discouraging learners from getting engaged in interaction and meaning negotiation attempts when interacting with their teachers. Surprisingly however, this area has attracted scant attention. Therefore, this study aimed at exploring students’ perceptions of their teachers’ socio-communicative style and nonverbal immediacy in relation to their engagement in classroom teacher-learner interaction and frequency of meaning negotiation attempts in their interactions. To this aim, 72 students were randomly assigned to six classes of 12 taught by six teachers. Richmond, McCroskey and Johnson’s (2003) nonverbal immediacy scale and McCroskey and Richmond’s (1996) socio-communicative style scale were administered to students to tap into their perceptions of these two qualities of their teachers. Then the total amount of time the students were engaged in active interaction with the teachers and the number of meaning negotiation attempts employed by them were computed. The results of Correlations and Regression Analyses revealed significant relationships between teacher nonverbal immediacy, the two dimensions of socio-communicative style (Assertiveness and Responsiveness) and the students’ willingness to engage in interaction and meaning negotiation with their teachers.

Gossip-Enabled Stochastic Channel Negotiation for Cognitive Radio Ad Hoc Networks

The presence of a predefined control channel in ad hoc wireless networks is a common assumption widely accepted by the research community. However, it may not always be the case in some future networking scenarios with high-network dynamics and strong user diversity, such as cognitive radio (CR) ad hoc networks. This paper investigates channel negotiation in CR ad hoc networks without a predefined control channel by introducing a novel gossip-enabled stochastic channel negotiation (GES-CN) framework. The channel negotiation process is first formulated as an optimization problem, aiming to improve the probability of successful channel negotiation in the CR network while achieving sufficient suppression on the interferences to the primary networks. With the GES-CN framework, we develop an analytical model on the probability of successful channel negotiation as well as the resultant overhead in terms of the number of channel negotiation attempts made before achieving a successful channel negotiation process via an absorbing Markov chain. Numerical results demonstrate the merits of the proposed GES-CN framework and validate the developed analytical model. We conclude that the proposed GES-CN framework is an excellent candidate for the future distributed CR ad hoc networks with high dynamics and heterogeneity.

Exploring the Impact of Underage Sex Work Among Female Sex Workers in Two Mexico–US Border Cities

Although sex work and younger age increase HIV vulnerability, empirical data regarding the impacts of underage sex work are lacking. We explored associations between features of the risk environment, sex work, and drug use history, and underage sex work entry among 624 female sex workers (FSWs) in Tijuana and Ciudad Juarez, Mexico. Forty-one percent (n = 253) of women began sex work as minors, among whom HIV and any STI/HIV prevalence were 5.2 and 60.7%. Factors independently associated with increased odds of underage sex work were inhalants as the first drug used, forced first injection, number of drug treatment attempts, and recent receptive syringe sharing. Number of recent condom negotiation attempts with steady partners and depression as a reason for first injecting were negatively associated with underage entry. These results underscore the importance of efforts to prevent underage sex work and the wider factors contributing to HIV risk among vulnerable youth and underage FSWs.

Getting to the Table and Getting to Yes: An Analysis of International Negotiations1

This paper analyzes the conditions that encourage (or hinder) conflicting states in coming to the negotiating table. It also explores the factors that influence the successfulness of such negotiation attempts. A main argument of the paper is that it is important to look at what brings states to the table, because this may have a direct or indirect impact on the outcome of such negotiations. While confirming some of the findings within the conflict management literature, this paper demonstrates that contextual factors seem to have different effects or a different impact on each stage, implying that while certain factors may bring states to the table, they may not be the same factors that make agreements possible.

Reactions of Heterosexual African American Men to Women's Condom Negotiation Strategies

This study describes responses of 172 single heterosexual African American men, ages 18 to 35, to condom negotiation attempts. Strategies used included reward, coercive, legitimate, expert, referent, and informational strategies, based on Raven's (1992) influence model. The purpose was (a) to identify strategies influencing participant acquiescence to request and (b) to identify predictors of participant compliance/refusal to comply with negotiation attempts. Participants viewed six videotape segments showing an actress, portrayed in silhouette, speaking to the viewer as a “steady partner.” After each segment, participants completed measures of request compliance, positive and negative affect, and attributions concerning the model and themselves. No significant differences were found in men's ratings across all vignettes. However, differences in response existed across subgroups of individuals, suggesting that, although the strategy used had little impact on participant response, the act of suggesting condom use produced responses that differed across participant subgroups. Subgroups differed on levels of AIDS risk knowledge, sexually transmitted disease history, and experience with sexual coercion. Also, the “least willing to use” subgroup was highest in anger–rejection and least likely to make attributions of caring for partner. Effective negotiation of condom use with a male sexual partner may not be determined as much by specific strategy used as by partner characteristics.

Gender differences in salary in a female‐dominated profession

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to examine the salary and promotion negotiation practices of female and male school psychology practitioners and university instructors of school psychology practitioners in order to determine whether salary differences exist between male and female employees in the field of school psychology, which has become a female‐dominated profession.Design/methodology/approachA total of 191 female and 115 male faculty members and 148 female and 56 male school psychologists completed a survey regarding salary, negotiation practices, and job satisfaction.FindingsResults suggest that females earn less than male colleagues, controlling for years of experience and degree attainment. No gender differences were found regarding faculty participants' willingness to negotiate for increased salary; however, males were more likely to negotiate for promotion. Likewise, no gender differences were evident in practitioners' salary and promotion negotiation attempts, although none were expected, given the salary schedule constraints unique to occupations in the field of education.Research limitations/implicationsThe paper is limited to one profession, albeit both university faculty and school psychology practitioners, and was conducted in the USA, so the findings may have limited generalizability to other professions and/or in other countries.Practical implicationsThe paper demonstrates that gender pay differences exist despite no differences in males' and females' willingness to negotiate for salary. Consequently, it is likely that pay differences between men and women are due to reasons other than individuals' education levels, years in position, and negotiation practices.Originality/valueThis is the first paper that tracks salaries and the negotiating practices of school psychologist trainers and practitioners. It also finds that male/female salary differences carry over into a female‐dominated profession.