Negative Parenting Behaviors Research Articles

The Impact of the in utero and Early Postnatal Environments on Grey and White Matter Volume: A Study with Adolescent Monozygotic Twins

Prenatal and early postnatal adversities have been shown to be associated with brain development. However, we do not know how much of this association is confounded by genetics, nor whether the postnatal environment can moderate the impact of in utero adversity. This study used a monozygotic (MZ) twin design to assess (1) the association between birth weight (BW) and brain volume in adolescence, (2) the association between within-twin-pair BW discordance and brain volume discordance in adolescence, and (3) whether the association between BW and brain volume in adolescence is mediated or moderated by early negative maternal parenting behaviours. These associations were assessed in a sample of 108 MZ twins followed longitudinally since birth and scanned at age 15. The total grey matter (GM) and white matter (WM) volumes were obtained using the Diffeomorphic Anatomical Registration Through Exponentiated Lie Algebra (DARTEL) toolbox in the Statistical Parametric Mapping version 8 (SPM8). We found that the BW was significantly associated with the total GM and WM volumes, particularly in the superior frontal gyrus and thalamus. Within-twin-pair discordance in BW was also significantly associated with within-pair discordance in both the GM and the WM volumes, supporting the hypothesis that the specific in utero environment is associated with brain development independently of genetics. Early maternal hostile parenting behaviours and depressive symptoms were associated with total GM volume but not WM volume. Finally, greater early maternal hostility may moderate the association between the BW and GM volume in adolescence, since the positive association between the BW and total GM volume appeared stronger at higher levels of maternal hostility (trend). Together, these findings support the importance of the in utero and early environments for brain development.

Intergenerational transmission of parenting: findings from a UK longitudinal study.

Background: The quality of parenting is associated with a wide range of child and adult outcomes, and there is evidence to suggest that some aspects of parenting show patterns of intergenerational transmission. This study aimed to determine whether such intergenerational transmission occurs in mothers and fathers in a UK birth cohort. Methods: The study sample consisted of 146 mothers and 146 fathers who were recruited from maternity wards in England and followed up for 24 months [‘Generation 2’ (G2)]. Perceptions of their own parenting [by ‘Generation1’ (G1)] were assessed from G2 parents at 12 months using the Parental Bonding Instrument (PBI). G2 parents were filmed interacting with their ‘Generation 3’ (G3) children at 24 months. Results: We found that G1 mothers’ ‘affection’ was associated with positive parenting behaviour in the G2 fathers (‘positive responsiveness’ β = 0.19, P = 0.04 and ‘cognitive stimulation’ β = 0.26, P < 0.01). G1 mothers’ ‘control’ was associated with negative parenting behaviour in G2 mothers (decreased ‘engagement’ β = −0.19, P = 0.04), and negative parenting behaviour in G2 fathers (increased ‘control’ β = 0.18, P = 0.05). None of the G1 fathers’ parenting variables were significantly associated with G2 parenting. Conclusions: There is evidence of intergenerational transmission of parenting behaviour in this highly educated UK cohort, with reported parenting of grandmothers associated with observed parenting in both mothers and fathers. No association was seen with reported parenting of grandfathers. This raises the possibility that parenting interventions may have benefits that are realised across generations.

Maternal Functioning Differences Based on ADHD Subtype

Objective: Maternal functioning differences in parenting stress, parental efficacy, and parenting behaviors were examined for mothers of children with ADHD. Method: Participants included 29 mothers of children with ADHD, Predominantly Inattentive Type (ADHD-I) and 38 mothers of children with ADHD, Predominantly Hyperactive-Impulsive or Combined Type (ADHD-HI/C). Results: Findings suggest that mothers of children with ADHD-HI/C reported significantly greater parenting stress and engaged in more negative parenting behaviors than mothers of children with ADHD-I. Conclusion: This study suggests that tailoring behavioral parent training based on ADHD subtype may be particularly helpful for parents of children with ADHD-HI/C.

The Interaction between rs6295 Polymorphism in the 5-HTR1A Gene and Parenting Behavior on Early Adolescents' Depression:The Verification of Differential Susceptability Model

The extant findings showed 5-HTR1 A gene rs6295 polymorphism was associated with depression. However, most of them were mainly guided by the "diathesis and stress model" and typically focused on the interaction between risk alleles and adverse environments. According to the "differential susceptibility model", the individuals exclusively affected by negative contexts can also respond more favorably to positive environments, but the positive environments interacting with the same genes have scarcely been investigated. It also remains unclear whether there is a moderating effect of gender on the way rs6295 polymorphism interacting with environments. This study aimed to test the hypothesis of differential susceptibility model by examining the interaction of rs6295 polymorphism with positive and negative parenting behavior on early adolescent depression, and explore the mediating effect of adolescents' gender. Participants(n = 1323) were a subset of a 4-year longitudinal study(n = 2715) which investigated 14 primary schools in Jinan by random cluster sampling method. During the initial assessment(in 2008), adolescents(grade 5) were on average 11.31 years old(SD = 0.49), and mothers ranged in age from 35 to 40 years(M = 38.03, SD = 2.39). Adolescents' depression were identified via self-rating on the Children's Depression Inventory(2008: ? = 0.88; 2011: ? = 0.89), and parenting behavior were rated by mother-report questionnaire(positive: ? = 0.85; negative: ? = 0.72). DNA was extracted from saliva. Genotype at rs6295 was performed in real time with Mass ARRAY RT software version 3.0.0.4 and analyzed using the Mass ARRAY Typer software version 3.4(Sequenom). A series of linear regression analyses were conducted by SPSS 18.0. The results showed rs6295 polymorphism significantly interacted with positive parenting behaviors in predicting early adolescents' depression, and furthermore this interaction was moderated by adolescents' gender. Specifically, among female early adolescents, those with CC genotype reported lower levels of depression than their counterparts with G allele(including CG and GG genotypes) when they were experiencing higher levels of positive parenting behavior, but such effect was not observed among the female adolescents who were exposure to lower levels of positive parenting behaviors. The above mentioned interaction between rs6295 polymorphismand positive parenting behaviors was not obtained among male early adolescents. The results also showed that there existed no significant interaction between rs6295 polymorphism and negative parenting behaviors on depression among both male and female early adolescents. The main effect of 5-HTR1 A gene rs6295 polymorphism on depression was not found either. Taken together, the findings of the present study indicated that the CC genotype in the rs6295 locus, which was regarded as the risk genotype in some previous studies, could respond more favorably to positive parenting behavior among female early adolescents. This lends partial support for the viewpoint of the newly-developed differential susceptibility model, and contributes to 5-HTR1 A gene-depression literature by elaborating the moderating effect of gender and parenting behavior among early adolescents. Future research should add the clinical sample, which can enlarge the variation of the parenting behavior, and the indexes of the distal environmental factors to further examine the interaction between rs6295 polymorphism and environmental influences on adolescent depression.

Dispositional and Environmental Predictors of the Development of Internalizing Problems in Childhood: Testing a Multilevel Model.

This investigation evaluated a multilevel model of dispositional and environmental factors contributing to the development of internalizing problems from preschool-age to school-age. In a sample of 375 families (185 daughters, 190 sons) drawn from three independent samples, preschoolers' behavioral inhibition, cortisol and gender were examined as moderators of the links between mothers' negative parenting behavior, negative emotional characteristics, and socioeconomic status when children were 3.95 years, and their internalizing problems when they were 8.34 years. Children's dispositional characteristics moderated all associations between these environmental factors and mother-reported internalizing problems in patterns that were consistent with either diathesis-stress or differential-susceptibility models of individual-environment interaction, and with gender models of developmental psychopathology. Greater inhibition and lower socioeconomic status were directly predictive of more teacher reported internalizing problems. These findings highlight the importance of using multilevel models within a bioecological framework to understand the complex pathways through which internalizing difficulties develop.

Predictors of positive and negative parenting behaviours: evidence from the ALSPAC cohort.

BackgroundThis study aimed to establish the predictors of positive and negative parenting behaviours in a United Kingdom population. The majority of previous research has focused on specific risk factors and has used a variety of outcome measures. This study used a single assessment of parenting behaviours and started with a wide range of potential pre- and post-natal variables; such an approach might be used to identify families who might benefit from parenting interventions.MethodsUsing a case-control subsample of 160 subjects from the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children (ALSPAC), regression analysis was undertaken to model parenting behaviours at 12 months as measured by the Mellow Parenting Observational System.ResultsPositive parenting increased with maternal age at delivery, levels of education and with prenatal anxiety. More negative interactions were observed among younger mothers, mothers with male infants, with prenatal non-smokers and among mothers who perceived they had a poor support structure.ConclusionsThis study indicates two factors which may be important in identifying families most at risk of negative parenting: younger maternal age at delivery and lack of social support during pregnancy. Such factors could be taken into account when planning provision of services such as parenting interventions. We also established that male children were significantly more likely to be negatively parented, a novel finding which may suggest an area for future research. However the findings have to be accepted cautiously and have to be replicated, as the measures used do not have established psychometric validity and reliability data.

The Developmental Origins of Personality Factors from the Self-Definitional and Relatedness Domains: A Review of Theory and Research

This paper reviews theory and research on the developmental origins of several widely studied personality vulnerabilities to psychopathology that represent the self-definitional (self-criticism, autonomy, and perfectionism) or relatedness (dependency and sociotropy) domains identified in Blatt's (2008) , Blatt and Shichman's (1983) , and Beck's ( Beck et al., 1983 ) 2-polarities models of personality. We examine the evidence for the effects of both parenting and peer relationships. We conclude that there is a robust relationship between negative parenting behaviors and the 5 personality vulnerabilities reviewed here which pertain to both self-definition and relatedness, with recent evidence suggesting a possible effect of peer relationships over and above parents. The available evidence suggests that all of the negative developmental experiences studied to date contribute to the development of all the personality vulnerabilities reviewed here. In light of this, we suggest possible mechanisms through which adverse developmental experiences may affect personality factors pertaining to self-definition and relatedness. We also suggest that there may be commonalities across the developmental experiences, such that they result in similar developmental consequences. Although there is now much research on the development of these personality factors, there is still relatively little research examining the roles of factors other than parents and peers, including siblings, romantic partners, environmental changes, and genetics, and we conclude by proposing a revised model of the development of self-definition and relatedness in order to outline future directions for this research field.

Policy: supporting parents to ensure a good start.

The first policy objective of the Marmot Review1 Fair Society, Healthy Lives is to 'give every child the best start in life'. Young children are heavily reliant upon their parents to ensure that they are set up for life with the emotional, cognitive and physical skills they need to thrive. Ensuring high-quality parenting is key to fulfilling this policy objective, and the mental wellbeing of parents is a vital determinant of the parenting a child receives.Dodge et al.2 conceptualise mental wellbeing as 'the balance between an individual's resource pool and the challenges faced'. Some of the resources that may be important to ensuring wellbeing are self-efficacy, dispositional optimism, self- esteem, goal pursuit, hope and resiliency.3,4 The Warwick-Edinburgh Mental Well-being Scale (WEMWBS) was developed specifically to capture a broad range of mental wellbeing components from a UK cultural perspective and includes positive affect (defined in terms of optimism, cheerfulness and relaxation), psychological functioning (including energy, clear thinking, self-acceptance, personal development, autonomy and competence) as well as satisfying interpersonal relationships.5 To achieve mental wellbeing, an individual must not only have these resources, but be able to deploy them successfully when needed.6The UK Government's recent mental health strategy7 sets good mental wellbeing for all as a key policy objective and highlights its role in protecting against mental illness. Mental wellbeing, however, is not just of importance to individuals in isolation, it is important for society collectively, not least because of the potential impact it has on the way we parent the next generation.The importance of good parentingChildren develop secure attachments when their needs are met by caregivers, and this is vital to good child development.8 Parenting styles theory posits four general parenting styles: authoritarian, authoritative, permissive and neglectful/disengaged, based on the levels of warmth, conflict and control (discipline) present.9,10 High warmth, low hostility and consistent discipline are associated with authoritative parenting, which is also closely linked to 'positive parenting'. The latter focuses on parents using positive methods, including praise to encourage good behaviour, being sensitive to a child's emotional needs and setting clear boundaries.11 Evidence suggests that authoritative/positive parenting is important for overall child health12 as well as preventing child conduct disorders.13 Abusive or neglectful parenting adversely affects child brain development,14 and epigenetic research has highlighted how early social environment can affect gene expression across the life course.15Overall, an extensive literature of research suggests that 'parental warmth consistently predicts favourable developmental outcomes for children, whereas parental hostility consistently predicts unfavourable developmental outcomes'.16If receiving positive parenting is a key determinant of child outcomes, it is important to understand what influences the types of parenting that a child receives. Belsky's17 process model posits three main determinants of parenting, of which the first is closely linked to mental wellbeing:1. Parental ontogenic origins and personal psychological resources2. The child's characteristics of individuality3. Contextual sources of stress and supportLinking mental wellbeing with parentingThere is a large body of literature highlighting the links between maternal depression and parenting behaviour. A meta- analysis by Lovejoy et al.18 found that a moderate effect size was present linking depression and negative parenting behaviours, and a negative correlation between depression and positive parenting behaviours (positive play, praise, affectionate contact), strongly mediated by socio-economic status - advantaged mothers with depression were significantly more likely than disadvantaged mothers with depression to maintain high levels of positive parenting behaviours. …

Parenting Behavior Mediates the Intergenerational Association of Parent and Child Offspring ADHD Symptoms

Although there are likely to be multiple mechanisms underlying parent attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) symptoms as a key risk factor for offspring ADHD, potential explanatory factors have yet to be reliably identified. Given that parent ADHD symptoms independently predict parenting behavior and child ADHD symptoms, we tested whether individual differences in multiple dimensions of positive and negative parenting behavior (i.e., corporal punishment, inconsistent discipline, positive parenting behavior, observed negative talk, and observed praise) mediated the association between parental and offspring ADHD. We used a prospective design that featured predictors (i.e., parent ADHD symptoms) and mediators (i.e., parenting behavior) that temporally preceded the outcome (i.e., offspring ADHD symptoms). Using a well-characterized sample of 120 children with and without ADHD (ages 5–10 at Wave 1, 7–12 at Wave 2) and their biological parents, we examined multimethod (i.e., observed, self-report) measures of positive and negative parenting behavior as simultaneous mediators of the association of Wave 1 parent and Wave 2 offspring ADHD symptoms. Using a multiple mediation framework, consisting of rigorous bootstrapping procedures and controlling for parent depression, child's baseline ADHD and oppositional defiant disorder, and child's age, corporal punishment significantly and uniquely mediated the association of Wave 1 parent ADHD symptoms and Wave 2 offspring ADHD. We consider the role of parenting behavior in the intergenerational transmission of ADHD as well as implications of these findings for the intervention and prevention of childhood ADHD.

The Etiology of the Association Between Child Antisocial Behavior and Maternal Negativity Varies Across Aggressive and Non-Aggressive Rule-Breaking Forms of Antisocial Behavior

There is a robust association between negative parenting and child antisocial behavior problems. However, the etiology of this association remains unclear. Extant literature has reported strikingly different conclusions across studies, with some highlighting genetic mediation and others highlighting environmental mediation. One possible reason for these discrepancies across studies may be the failure to differentiate between aggressive and non-aggressive (rule-breaking) dimensions of childhood antisocial behavior, given their notably different etiologies and developmental trajectories (Burt 2012). The current study sought to examine the phenotypic and etiologic associations of maternal negativity with aggressive and rule-breaking antisocial behavior, respectively. Participants included 824 mothers and their twin children between the ages of 6 and 10. Our results highlighted clear etiologic distinctions in the associations of aggression and rule-breaking with maternal negativity. Aggression was associated with maternal negativity via both genetic and environmental factors, whereas the association between non-aggressive rule-breaking and maternal negativity was entirely environmental in origin. These findings provide additional support for the presence of meaningful distinctions between aggressive and non-aggressive forms of antisocial behavior, and highlight the complex relationship between parenting and child outcome.

영유아 어머니의 양육행동에 대한 양육죄책감과 아버지 양육지원의 상호작용효과

This study aimed to identify the moderating effect of the father's support on the relationship between the mother's parenting guilt and her parenting behavior. For the goal, the present study 1) analysed the differences in the mother's parenting guilt as the general variables of the mother and child, and 2) examined the main effects and interaction effects between the mother's parenting guilt and her spouse's support on the mother's parenting behavior. The participants of the study were 350 mothers whose infants and toddlers were attending a day-care centers in Gwangju and Jeollanamdo. The summary of this study is as follows. First, the mothers younger than 29 years old reported more parenting guilt than the mothers aged 35 to 39. Also, the working mothers felt more parenting guilt than the unemployed mothers. Second, when the main effect and interaction effects among the mother's parenting guilt, parenting behaviors, and the father's parenting support are analysed, the interaction effects were statistically significant with only rejection control parenting behaviors. The result means that even if the mother feels a lot of parenting guilt, if the father's parenting support is high, her rejection control parenting behaviors tend to appear less. The present study suggests that the father's parenting support plays an important role in the reduction of the mother's negative parenting behaviors.

Emotion recognition in preschool children: Associations with maternal depression and early parenting

Emotion knowledge in childhood has been shown to predict social functioning and psychological well-being, but relatively little is known about parental factors that influence its development in early childhood. There is some evidence that both parenting behavior and maternal depression are associated with emotion recognition, but previous research has only examined these factors independently. The current study assessed auditory and visual emotion recognition ability among a large sample of preschool children to examine typical emotion recognition skills in children of this age, as well as the independent and interactive effects of maternal and paternal depression and negative parenting (i.e., hostility and intrusiveness). Results indicated that children were most accurate at identifying happy emotional expressions. The lowest accuracy was observed for neutral expressions. A significant interaction was found between maternal depression and negative parenting behavior: children with a maternal history of depression were particularly sensitive to the negative effects of maladaptive parenting behavior on emotion recognition ability. No significant effects were found for paternal depression. These results highlight the importance of examining the effects of multiple interacting factors on children's emotional development and provide suggestions for identifying children for targeted preventive interventions.

Associations among negative parenting, attention bias to anger, and social anxiety among youth.

Theories of affective learning suggest that early experiences contribute to emotional disorders by influencing the development of processing biases for negative emotional stimuli. Although studies have shown that physically abused children preferentially attend to angry faces, it is unclear whether youth exposed to more typical aspects of negative parenting exhibit the same type of bias. The current studies extend previous research by linking observed negative parenting styles (e.g., authoritarian) and behaviors (e.g., criticism and negative affect) to attention bias for angry faces in both a psychiatrically enriched (ages 11-17 years; N = 60) and a general community (ages 9-15 years; N = 75) sample of youth. In addition, the association between observed negative parenting (e.g., authoritarian style and negative affect) and youth social anxiety was mediated by attention bias for angry faces in the general community sample. Overall, findings provide preliminary support for theories of affective learning and risk for psychopathology among youth.

A Longitudinal Investigation of Maternal Influences on the Development of Child Hostile Attributions and Aggression

Aggression in children is associated with an enhanced tendency to attribute hostile intentions to others. However, limited information is available regarding the factors that contribute to the development of such hostile attribution tendencies. We examined factors that contribute to individual differences in child hostile attributions and aggression, focusing on potential pathways from maternal hostile attributions via negative parenting behavior. We conducted a longitudinal study of 98 mothers and children (47 male, 51 female), recruited from groups experiencing high and low levels of psychosocial adversity. Maternal hostile attributions, observed parenting, and child behaviour were assessed at 18 months and 5 years child age, and child hostile attributions were also examined at 5 years. Independent assessments of maternal and child processes were utilized where possible. Analyses provided support for a direct influence of maternal hostile attributions on the development of child hostile attributions and aggressive behaviour. Maternal hostile attributions were also associated with negative parenting behaviour, which in turn influenced child adjustment. Even taking account of possible parenting influences and preexisting child difficulties, hostile attributions in the mother showed a direct link with child aggression at 5 years. Maternal hostile attributions were themselves related to psychosocial adversity. We conclude that maternal hostile attributions are prevalent in high-risk samples and are related to less optimal parenting behaviour, child hostile attributions, and child aggression. Targeting hostile maternal cognitions may be a useful adjunct to parenting programs.

Trajectories of Adolescent Psychopathic Traits

There is growing evidence that psychopathic traits are stable across the adolescent developmental period. Yet, no previous studies have examined the longitudinal course of these traits across adolescence. In this study, we examined joint developmental trajectories of grandiose-manipulative traits, callous-unemotional traits, and impulsive-irresponsible behavior and how these trajectories were related to changes in parental behavior and delinquency over time. Participants were 1,068 adolescents from a community sample, who were followed annually over 4 years. Overall, our results showed that a four-class latent class growth model best represented the developmental pattern of adolescent psychopathic traits. Although the majority of adolescents showed low or moderate initial levels that also decreased over time, there was a small group of adolescents who, despite significant decreases in two out of three dimensions, still maintained relatively high levels on all three dimensions. We also found that parental behavior and delinquency developed differently for the groups over time, with the high-decreasing group engaging in more delinquent behavior over time and experiencing more negative parental behavior than any other group. In sum, our findings suggest that there is a group of adolescents at particular risk for negative development.

Negative parenting behavior and childhood oppositional defiant disorder: Differential moderation by positive and negative peer regard

Although negative parenting behavior and peer status are independently associated with childhood conduct problems (e.g., oppositional defiant disorder (ODD)), relatively little is known about their interplay, particularly in relation to differentiated measures of positive and negative peer regard. To improve the specificity of the association of negative parenting behavior and peer factors with ODD, we explored the potential interaction of parenting and peer status in a sample of 169 five-to ten-year-old ethnically diverse children with and without attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) assessed using multiple measures (i.e., rating scales, interview) and informants (i.e., parents, teachers). Controlling for children's age, sex, number of ADHD symptoms, and parents' race-ethnicity, peer acceptance inversely predicted and inconsistent discipline, harsh punishment, and peer rejection were each positively associated with ODD symptom severity. Interactive influences were also evident such that inconsistent discipline and harsh punishment each predicted elevated ODD but only among children experiencing low peer acceptance or high peer rejection. These findings suggest that supportive environments, including peer acceptance, may protect children from negative outcomes associated with inconsistent discipline and harsh punishment. Findings are integrated with theories of social support, and we additionally consider implications for intervention and prevention.

Parenting and Conduct Problems: Moderation by Child Empathy

Child empathy was examined as a moderator of the relations between positive and negative parenting behavior and child conduct problems. Participants were 56 mother-child dyads (child age M = 10.8 years; 64 % male) and children were recruited with a range of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) symptoms. Parenting was assessed by direct observations of mothers’ praise and criticism during parent–child interactions and child empathy was measured with mother report. Child conduct problems were assessed via observation and mother-report measures, and a composite variable was created. In regression analyses, child ADHD symptoms were uniquely related to child conduct problems. Second, as hypothesized, child empathy moderated the relations between parenting and conduct problems. Mother praise was negatively related to child conduct problems at lower levels of child empathy, but this relation was not significant at higher levels of child empathy. On the contrary, mother criticism was positively related to child conduct problems at high levels of child empathy, but this relation was not significant at low levels of empathy. The results suggest that different types of parenting behavior may be differentially beneficial to children, depending on their level of empathy.

Parenting behavior and the risk of becoming a victim and a bully/victim: A meta-analysis study

ObjectiveBeing bullied has adverse effects on children's health. Children's family experiences and parenting behavior before entering school help shape their capacity to adapt and cope at school and have an impact on children's peer relationship, hence it is important to identify how parenting styles and parent–child relationship are related to victimization in order to develop intervention programs to prevent or mitigate victimization in childhood and adolescence. MethodsWe conducted a systematic review of the published literature on parenting behavior and peer victimization using MEDLINE, PsychINFO, Eric and EMBASE from 1970 through the end of December 2012. We included prospective cohort studies and cross-sectional studies that investigated the association between parenting behavior and peer victimization. ResultsBoth victims and those who both bully and are victims (bully/victims) were more likely to be exposed to negative parenting behavior including abuse and neglect and maladaptive parenting. The effects were generally small to moderate for victims (Hedge's g range: 0.10–0.31) but moderate for bully/victims (0.13–0.68). Positive parenting behavior including good communication of parents with the child, warm and affectionate relationship, parental involvement and support, and parental supervision were protective against peer victimization. The protective effects were generally small to moderate for both victims (Hedge's g: range: −0.12 to −0.22) and bully/victims (−0.17 to −0.42). ConclusionsNegative parenting behavior is related to a moderate increase of risk for becoming a bully/victim and small to moderate effects on victim status at school. Intervention programs against bullying should extend their focus beyond schools to include families and start before children enter school.

Modern Prejudice and Same-Sex Parenting: Shifting Judgments in Positive and Negative Parenting Situations

The current study compares the effects of traditional and modern antihomosexual prejudice on evaluations of parenting practices of same-sex and opposite-sex couples. Undergraduate university student participants (N = 436) completed measures of traditional and modern antihomosexual prejudice and responded to a vignette describing a restaurant scene in which parents react to their child's undesirable behavior. The parents’ sexual orientation and the quality of their parenting (positive or negative quality) were randomly varied. It was predicted that participants who score higher in modern prejudice would rate the negative parenting behaviors of same-sex parents more negatively than similar behaviors in opposite-sex parents. It was also predicted that this modern prejudice effect would be most pronounced for male participants. Both hypotheses were supported.

Parents of Children with Asperger Syndrome: Relationships between Early Attachment Experiences and Parenting Behaviors

Research with parents of children with Asperger Syndrome was conducted to assess whether the level of positive parental attachment correlated positively with positive parenting behaviors and negatively with negative parenting behaviors. Participants were recruited from internet. The Parental Bonding Inventory measured parents`` perception of their bonding or attachment with three aspects of their own parents: warmth, control, and care. In the Parenting Behavior Inventory, parents reported recent interaction/reaction behaviors with their child, and results focused on two aspects of parenting, supportive/engaged and hostile/coercive behaviors: each identified as problematic to parenting and attributable to a variety of specific parenting behaviors. Analysis of demographic variables for correlations with positive parenting behaviors and negative parenting behaviors were carried out by Pearson correlations. Two separate standard multiple regressions, one for positive parenting behaviors and one for negative parenting behaviors, were conducted. Findings support the hypothesis that positive early attachment experience of parents has a significant impact upon their own positive parenting skills with their child with Asperger Syndrome. However, multiple regression of negative parenting behavior found no significant negative contribution by parental attachment. Demographic variables proved to be important.