Negative Metastereotypes Research Articles

Older and younger job seekers' attention towards metastereotypes in job ads.

Building on social identity theory and cognitive models on information processing, the present paper considered whether and how stereotyped information in job ads impairs older/younger job seekers' job attraction. Two eye-tracking experiments with older (Study 1) and younger job seekers (Study 2) investigated effects of negatively metastereotyped personality requirements (i.e., traits) on job attraction and whether attention to and memory for negative information mediated these effects. Within-participants analyses showed for both older and younger job seekers that job attraction was lower when ads included negative metastereotypes and that more attention was allocated towards these negative metastereotypes. Older, but not younger job seekers, also better recalled these negative metastereotypes compared to not negative metastereotypes. The effect of metastereotypes on job attraction was not mediated by attention or recall of information. Organizations should therefore avoid negative metastereotypes in job ads that may capture older/younger job seekers' attention and lower job attraction.

What do they think of us? Effects of negative meta-stereotypes on hotel employees in China

How do hotel employees react when they become aware that customers harbor stereotypes towards them? Building on the theory of social identity threat, this research investigates the threat that negative meta-stereotypes (NMSs) pose to hotel employees. Two cross-sectional surveys and two experimental studies were conducted and an easy-to-apply scale for NMSs is proposed. The results indicated that the activation of NMSs triggered intense intergroup anxiety among hotel employees, with adverse effects on work-related outcomes. Furthermore, these effects were moderated by power distance belief (PDB). NMSs intensified intergroup anxiety amongst hotel employees with high PDB, while this effect was attenuated for those with low PDB. The research proposes a fresh theoretical framework for the study of stigmatization which is widespread across the hotel industry.

How do others think about my group? Adolescents’ meta-stereotypes about Turkish- and German-origin students’ subject-related German and general school competence

AbstractIn Germany, Turkish-origin students face negative competence-related stereotypes held by different groups in society, including teachers at school. While a large body of research has examined stereotypes (i.e., other-stereotypes) about immigrant students, little is known about their own competence-related meta-stereotypes, i.e., beliefs regarding the other-stereotypes that outgroup peers hold about them. The present study addresses this research gap by examining Turkish- and German-origin students’ meta-stereotypes about two dimensions of competencies not yet investigated, namely Turkish- and German-origin students’ subject-related German competence as well as their general school competence using a newly developed instrument combining verbal and non-verbal measures. These assessments are juxtaposed to the evaluations of a group of peers with other immigrant backgrounds (i.e., others’ meta-stereotypes). In line with previous evidence, we found positive meta-stereotypes (as well as other- and others’ meta-stereotypes) towards German-origin students reported by all three groups. However, our study is the first that supports the existence of negative meta-stereotypes (as well as other- and others’ meta-stereotypes) towards Turkish-origin adolescents, again, among all participants. This pattern was particularly pronounced regarding the dimension of subject-related German competence. We discuss the findings’ potential relevance for students’ self-concepts and intergroup interactions in classrooms.

Mind the ad: How personality requirements affect older and younger job seekers' job attraction

AbstractAge discrimination may explain lower labour market chances of older and younger job seekers. What remains underresearched, however, is how older/younger job seekers might self‐select out from early recruitment procedures due to stigmatizing information in job ads. Building on theories of metastereotypes and the linguistic category model, two experimental studies investigated how personality requirements that older/younger job seekers hold negative metastereotypes about and the way in which these requirements are worded (behavioural vs. dispositional) affected their job attraction. Within‐participant mediation analyses showed that as expected, job attraction was higher for older (N = 123, aged 50 years or more) and younger (N = 151, 30 years or less) job seekers when requirements were worded in a behavioural way (e.g., ‘You can be flexible’), compared with a dispositional way (e.g., ‘You are flexible’). This relation was mediated by perceptions of challenge among younger but not older job seekers. Contrary to expectations, perceptions of threat did not explain the effects of negatively metastereotyped personality requirements on job attraction. Understanding how job seekers perceive information in job ads might help recruiters to design age‐sensitive recruitment policies.

Do valence and effects of meta-stereotype conform to the rewarding principle?

<p id=C10>The term meta-stereotype refers to the beliefs of in-group members regarding the stereotypes that out-group members hold about them. Its valence can be positive or negative, and its effects can also be positive or negative. Previous researchers have held the view that the valence and effects of meta-stereotype conform to the “rewarding principle.” In other words, positive meta-stereotype activation would have a positive effect, and negative meta-stereotype activation would have a negative effect. However, recent studies, have found that this relationship was not consistent. Up to now, the nature of the relationship between the valence and effects of meta-stereotype is still a matter of debate. <p id=C11>For the negative meta-stereotype activation, its threat effect conforms to the rewarding principle, whereas the reactance effect does not. The threat effect of the negative meta-stereotype is that its activation could result in psychological conflict for individuals engaged in social situations. This may induce them to face a loss of cognitive balance and experience anxiety and stress, resulting in negative consequences. In contrast, it is possible for the activation of negative meta-stereotype to have a positive effect, that is, the reactance effect. When the negative meta-stereotype is activated, individuals perceive that they are being negatively evaluated by the out-group members. They may act to refute the negative evaluation. They would then display positive behaviors in a way to maintain a positive in-group image or prove their own abilities. It was found that the threat and reactance effects of negative meta-stereotype differ in the research scope, mechanism, and interventions that would eliminate the negative effects of meta-stereotype. <p id=C12>For the positive meta-stereotype activation, its boost effect conforms to the rewarding principle, whereas the choking effect does not. In general, the positive meta-stereotype reflects the positive evaluation by the out-group to the in-group members; that is, it contains a number of positive characteristics. Therefore, the activation of the positive meta-stereotype can lead to a boost effect. Specifically, when individuals feel that they are positively viewed by the out-group members, they not only feel better about themselves, but also are encouraged to give back to other out-group members in helpful, constructive way. In contrast, positive meta-stereotype activation may also have a negative effect; that is, the choking effect. If individuals perceive that the out-group members hold very high expectations of them, they may feel substantially more pressure. This can bring about undesirable outcomes. They might focus too intensely on themselves, or even feel worry and doubt their own abilities, and subsequently perform badly. After comparing previous studies of the boost and choking effects of positive meta-stereotype, it was found that the differences between them were in the research scope, mechanism, and the mode of activation. <p id=C13>Based on the analysis of the four effects mentioned above, it appears that the effects of meta-stereotype activation of different valences are influenced by a variety of factors at the individual and the group levels. Among them, the individual-level factors are the difficulty of retrieving the meta-stereotype, the internal resources, the degree of meta-stereotype personalization, and the impression management motivation; the group-level factors include group social status. <p id=C14>Although research on meta-stereotype has gradually expanded, it still mainly focuses on the threat effect of the negative meta-stereotype and the boost effect of the positive meta-stereotype respectively. Studies on the reactance effect of the negative meta-stereotype and the choking effect of the positive meta-stereotype are limited. Many issues remain to be addressed. Future research can further expand the fields and preconditions of the diverse effects activated by the negative and positive meta-stereotypes, explore the interventions to eliminate the negative effects of meta-stereotype, and investigate the role of meta-stereotype activation mode.

Correlates of international students’ intergroup intentions and adjustment: The role of metastereotypes and intercultural communication apprehension

The present study aimed to examine the link between metastereotypes of international students and their intergroup intentions and adjustment within the receiving country, considering the role of intercultural communication apprehension with host majority members. Participants were 191 international PhD students in Italy. All of them completed a questionnaire measuring positive and negative metastereotypes referred to their group (i.e., international students), intercultural communication apprehension, psychological adjustment, self-disclosure, and contact intentions with Italian majority members. Path analysis showed that the effects of positive and negative metastereotypes were not completely symmetrical. Positive metastereotypes were directly linked to self-disclosure and intended contact, while negative metastereotypes presented a direct link to psychological adjustment. Nevertheless, both of them were related to intercultural communication apprehension, which in turn was associated with psychological adjustment and willingness to communicate personal information and to have contacts with Italians. These findings proved that metastereotypes can be implicated in international students’ intergroup relations and adjustment, with some differences between negative and positive beliefs. It is also the latter that interventions should address to improve international students’ psychological well-being and intergroup relations within the receiving country.

Metastereotypes impairing doctor-patient relations: The roles of intergroup anxiety and patient trust.

This study examined whether patients' negative metastereotypes undermine their perception of doctor-patient relations through raising their intergroup anxiety and decreasing their trust level. One hundred twenty-four outpatients from a Chinese hospital participated in this study; they were randomly assigned to either the negative metastereotype activation (NMSA) or the non-NMSA condition according to different instructions. Then, they were asked to complete the Intergroup Anxiety, Patient Trust, and Doctor-Patient Relations Scale. Patients' negative metastereotypes undermined doctor-patient relations through the mediation of intergroup anxiety and patient trust (i.e., the independent mediation effect of intergroup anxiety and patient trust) and the serial mediation effect of intergroup anxiety and patient trust. These findings suggest that future research consider intergroup anxiety and patient trust in developing interventions to improve doctor-patient relations.

Metastereotypes, perceived mattering, and well-being among minority groups

ABSTRACT Perception of mattering may be especially important for those who are more likely to be the object of negative stereotypes, such as members of minority groups. The present study aimed to analyse the relationship between perceived mattering to family and friends, metastereotypes, and well-being among two minority groups: people living with HIV (PLWHA) and people with disabilities (PWDs). Of 100 participants, 39 were living with HIV and 61 were individuals with disabilities. Multiple regression analyses showed that positive (more than negative) metastereotypes could significantly predict perceived mattering and well-being among both groups. Mattering to both family and friends significantly predicted many dimensions of well-being among both PLWHA and PWDs. These findings show that perception of mattering is related to the well-being of minority group members. Interventions aimed at improving the well-being of individuals who belong to minority groups should focus on positive metastereotypes and the perception of being important to significant others, considering both friends and family members.

Negative expectations and bad relationships: Effects of negative metastereotypes on doctor–patient relationships

This research aimed to examine the effects of negative metastereotypes (i.e., patients believe that doctors have negative opinions about them) and conflict experience on doctor–patient relationships. A 2 × 2 experimental study was conducted on 84 outpatients who were randomly assigned to either a negative metastereotype activation (NMSA) condition or a nonnegative metastereotype activation (non‐NMSA) condition. Each group consisted of patients with and without conflict experience (CE). Intergroup anxiety and doctor–patient relationships were subsequently assessed. Results showed that NMSA and CE increased intergroup anxiety and undermined doctor–patient relationships. In addition, the interaction between NMSA and CE on doctor–patient relationships was significant. When negative metastereotypes were activated, patients with CE showed more unfavorable relationships with doctors as compared with those under non‐NMSA activation condition; no metastereotype effects on doctor–patient relationships were observed among patients without CE. These findings provided insights into an important predictor of doctor–patient relationships as well as its mechanism. Future studies should consider negative metastereotypes and CE to develop interventions for improving doctor–patient relationships.

Generational meta-stereotypes: Generational stereotypes in action

Early research on generational diversity reported fractured findings. Notwithstanding, recent research that adopts a social identity perspective stresses that generational differences appear to be a real phenomenon, if only in the perceptions of employees and managers giving rise to stereotypes and self-fulling prophecies. However, generational stereotypes are but one side of the coin. Meta-stereotypes or what individuals believe other generational groups think about their own generation is a critical aspect of intergenerational perception influencing generational interactions. Calling on social identity theory and employing a cognitive mapping method (repertory grid technique, mixed methods), the present study taps into three generations (Generations Z, Y and X) minds and demonstrates how these generations perceive what the other generational groups think about their generation. For the categorization in generational groups, we measured generational identity. We point out to both positive and negative meta-stereotypes and how these may affect attitudes and behaviors in the workplace. We also point to meta-patterns about how meta-stereotypes do not operate in the same way for the various generational groups researched. We give some advice for practitioners and call for a further investigation of the generational phenomenon.

A Daily Diary Study of Responses to Age Meta-stereotypes

Abstract An age meta-stereotype occurs when we activate the idea that another age group is holding a stereotype of our age group, but what happens after this occurs? We used experience sampling methodology to explore reactions to, and subsequent behaviors associated with, positive and negative age meta-stereotypes occurring over the course of a work week. One hundred eighty-five employees from various organizations across the United States responded to a daily survey tapping into activation of positive and negative age meta-stereotypes, reactions (threat, challenge, or boost), and interpersonal behaviors (avoidance, conflict, and engagement). Hypotheses regarding relationships among reactions and behaviors were largely supported, but there were some unexpected findings regarding reactions to positive and negative age meta-stereotypes. Of particular interest: (a) younger respondents experienced more negative age meta-stereotypes than older respondents, even those that have been shown to be typically older meta-stereotypes, and (b) experiencing older negative meta-stereotypes, regardless of the age of the respondent, was related to challenge reactions while experiencing younger negative meta-stereotypes, regardless of the age of respondent, was related to threat. Our findings demonstrate advantages to studying age meta-stereotypes using experience sampling methods, and point to a need for more theoretical refinement to account for different reactions and behaviors depending on respondent age and type of meta-stereotype.

Helping a Lost Tourist: The Effects of Metastereotypes on Resident Prosocial Behaviors

While previous research has explored stereotypes, few studies have investigated the effects of metastereotypes on residents’ prosocial behaviors; that is, how would residents react to tourists’ negative (or positive) stereotypes of them? Study 1 demonstrates that residents were more willing to help a lost tourist in the face of negative metastereotypes. Study 2 further shows that metastereotype valence (i.e., positive or negative) could influence residents’ prosocial behaviors. Finally, Study 3 shows that triggering a common social identity between residents and tourists may not mitigate the effects of metastereotypes that arise from outgroup distinctiveness. Taken together, this research suggests that metastereotypes could potentially influence prosocial behaviors through impression management motives. This research contributes to the literature on host-tourist relationships and provides practical relevance for destination management organizations and public policy planners involved in managing intergroup relations by connecting knowledge from metastereotypes with stereotype-reduction strategies.

When Job Ads Turn You Down: How Requirements in Job Ads May Stop Instead of Attract Highly Qualified Women

Qualification-based targeted recruitment strategies aim to increase the number of qualified applicants from certain social groups, such as women. Typically, such strategies assume that individuals are more likely to apply for a job when they possess the requirements needed for that job. However, how job seekers react to requirements in job ads is not often considered and is explored in the present study. In two experimental studies with Belgian university students we investigated whether person requirements about which women have negative meta-stereotypes (like the trait of emotionality) and the way such requirements are formulated in job ads (i.e., using trait-like adjectives, “You are calm/not nervous,” or behavior-like verbs, “You remain calm in stressful situations”) affected women’s job attraction and decision to apply. A repeated measures ANOVA showed that job attraction was lower if women held negative meta-stereotypes about required personality traits in job ads (Study 1; 218 women; M age = 23.44 years, range = 21–42; 97% ethnic majorities). Moreover, qualified women applied to a lesser extent if a negatively meta-stereotyped trait was worded in a trait-like way than when it was worded in a behavior-like way (Study 2; n = 183; M age = 23.68 years, range = 21–44; 58% women; 97% ethnic majorities). A practical implication is that recruiters should be sensitive to how they formulate job ads if they wish to attract a highly qualified and gender-diverse applicant pool.

The effects of meta-stereotypes and egalitarianism on intergroup interactions

It has been widely documented that egalitarianism motivates people to avoid stereotype use, which in turn facilitates intergroup interactions. However, in addition to perceptions of how the outgroup is perceived by the ingroup (stereotypes), perceptions of how the ingroup is perceived by the outgroup (meta-stereotypes) may also play an important role in intergroup interactions. We hypothesized that when negative meta-stereotypes are perceived, egalitarianism may increase vigilance toward stereotype use by the outgroup, thus exacerbating feelings of anxiety in intergroup interactions. Japanese participants were asked to report how they felt during an intergroup interaction with a Korean confederate, after being exposed to an article documenting positive or negative views Koreans might have of Japanese. The results were consistent with the notion that when negative meta-stereotypes are perceived, participants with high (versus low) egalitarianism experienced more anxiety in the intergroup interaction.

The role of negative metastereotype in intergroup conflict

The role of negative metastereotype in intergroup conflict

Effects of negative metastereotype on intergroup relations among rural-to-urban migrant children in China .

We examined how group identification and intergroup anxiety jointly mediate the relationship between negative metastereotype and intergroup relations among rural-to-urban migrant children in China. Migrant children, who have both rural and urban identities, are sensitive to their uncertain status, which means that a negative metastereotype is easily activated. We recruited 105 migrant children who were randomly assigned to two groups. They received either a negative metastereotype or control manipulation. Intergroup anxiety, group identification, and intergroup relations were then assessed. Results showed that intergroup anxiety and urban identification could independently mediate the effects of a negative metastereotype on intergroup relations. Intergroup anxiety indirectly influenced intergroup relations through urban identification. These findings suggest that negative emotion and urban identification should be considered when studying the negative metastereotype of migrant children in China and should be included when planning interventions to improve intergroup relations of these children.

Getting the Words Right: When Wording of Job Ads Affects Ethnic Minorities’ Application Decisions

Targeted recruitment strategies aim to communicate job vacancies to specific groups of job seekers that organizations wish to attract, such as qualified ethnic minorities. Typically, these strategies do not consider how person requirements are communicated in job advertisements and how job seekers from different ethnic groups react to such requirements. Two field experiments among actual job seekers investigated whether the type of required trait and the wording of traits affected ethnic minorities’ job attraction (Study 1, N = 140) and qualified ethnic minorities’ and majorities’ decision to apply (Study 2, N = 130). Findings show that ethnic minority job seekers were less attracted to job ads targeting a trait they have negative meta-stereotypes about. Wording of traits did not moderate this effect. However, ethnic minority job seekers who were qualified for a negatively meta-stereotyped trait decided not to apply when that trait was worded in a dispositional (vs. a behavioral) way.

The Effects of Negative Meta-Stereotypes on Self-Affirmation

The Effects of Negative Meta-Stereotypes on Self-Affirmation

Young at heart, old at work? Relations between age, (meta-)stereotypes, self-categorization, and retirement attitudes

The aims of this study were to examine how workers' negative age stereotypes (i.e., denying older workers' ability to develop) and negative meta-stereotypes (i.e., beliefs that the majority of colleagues feel negative about older workers) are related to their attitudes towards retirement (i.e., occupational future time perspective and intention to retire), and whether the strength of these relationships is influenced by workers' self-categorization as an “older” person. Results of a study among Dutch taxi drivers provided mixed support for the hypotheses. Negative meta-stereotypes, but not negative age stereotypes, were associated with fewer perceived opportunities until retirement and, in turn, a stronger intention to retire. Self-categorization moderated the relationships between negative age (meta-)stereotypes and occupational future time perspective. However, contrary to expectations, the relations were stronger among workers with a low self-categorization as an older person in comparison with workers with a high self-categorization in this regard. Overall, results highlight the importance of psychosocial processes in the study of retirement intentions and their antecedents.

Group boundary permeability moderates the effect of a dependency meta-stereotype on help-seeking behaviour.

Previous studies have found that when low-status group members are aware that their in-group is stereotyped as dependent by a specific out-group (i.e. a dependency meta-stereotype is salient), they are reluctant to seek help from the high-status out-group to avoid confirming the negative meta-stereotype. However, it is unclear whether low-status group members would seek more help in the context of a salient dependency meta-stereotype when there is low (vs. high) group boundary permeability. Therefore, we conducted two experiments to examine the moderating effect of permeability on meta-stereotype confirmation with a real group. In study 1, we manipulated the salience of the dependency meta-stereotype, measured participants' perceived permeability and examined their help-seeking behaviour in a real-world task. Participants who perceived low permeability sought more help when the meta-stereotype was salient (vs. not salient), whereas participants who perceived high permeability sought the same amount of help across conditions. In study 2, we manipulated the permeability levels and measured the dependency meta-stereotype. Participants who endorsed a high-dependency meta-stereotype sought more help than participants who endorsed a low-dependency meta-stereotype; this effect was particularly strong in the low-permeability condition. The implications of these results for social mobility and intergroup helping are discussed.