Negative Cognitive Style Research Articles

Cognitive and Interpersonal Vulnerabilities to Adolescent Depression: Classification of Risk Profiles for a Personalized Prevention Approach.

Despite interest in psychosocial vulnerabilities to depression, little is known about reliable and valid individualized risk profiles that can be used to match individuals to evidence-based interventions for depression. This study investigated well-established cognitive and interpersonal vulnerabilities to depression among youth to discern an evidence-based risk classification approach which is being used in a personalized depression prevention randomized clinical trial. Data were drawn from a general community sample of adolescents (N = 467; ages 10-16, mean 13.14, SD = 1.62; 57% females) who were followed prospectively for 3years. Youth completed measures of cognitive (negative cognitive style, dysfunctional attitudes, rumination) and interpersonal (support and conflict with peers and parents, excessive reassurance seeking, social competence, co-rumination) risks to depression, and then were followed longitudinally for onset of depression. Principal axis factor analyses showed that three latent factors--cognitive vulnerability, interpersonal support, and interpersonal conflict--optimally represented the structure of these risk factors. Clinically practical and meaningful cutoffs, based on tertile cut-off scores on cognitive and interpersonal risk measures, were used to categorize youth into relatively balanced high and low cognitive and interpersonal risk groups. These risk classification groups exhibited validity (AUC > 0.70) by predicting prospective onsets of depressive episodes at 18-months follow-ups. These findings demonstrate a reliable and valid approach to synthesize psychosocial vulnerabilities to depression, specifically cognitive and interpersonal risks. Results are discussed in terms of using these risk classifications profiles to test personalized prevention of depression during adolescence.

Negative cognitive style interacts with negative life events to predict first onset of a major depressive episode in adolescence via hopelessness.

The hopelessness theory of depression is a prominent account of depression that posits that individuals with a negative inferential style are more likely to become hopeless when they experience negative life events (NLEs) and that hopelessness is a proximal cause of depression. There is strong evidence supporting the role of a negative inferential style in the pathogenesis of major depression; however, substantially less is known about the proposed role played by hopelessness. The cornerstone hypothesis of hopelessness theory, that hopelessness is a proximal cause of major depression, is largely untested. A small number of studies have generated inconclusive evidence that hopelessness mediates the relationship between a negative inferential style, NLEs, and depressive symptoms. The current study tested whether hopelessness mediates the relationship between a Negative Inferential Style × NLEs interaction and (a) 1st onset of a major depressive episode (MDE) and (b) depressive symptoms in a fully prospective design. A diverse sample of 249 adolescents, ages 12-13 years, were assessed at baseline and at 2 or more follow-ups over approximately 2.5 years. Self-report as well as life event and diagnostic interviews assessed inferential style, NLEs, hopelessness, depressive symptoms, and depression diagnosis. Moderated mediation analyses indicated that hopelessness mediated the relationship between a Negative Inferential Style × NLEs interaction and (a) 1st onset of an MDE as well as (b) depressive symptoms at higher levels of multiple types of NLEs. The current study demonstrates the validity of the hopelessness theory of depression and its continued clinical relevance in predicting depression in adolescence. (PsycINFO Database Record

Life events and hopelessness depression: The influence of affective experience.

This study explored the association of the affective experience (AE) of life events on hopelessness depression (HD). Undergraduates (N = 301) participating in a 12-week prospective study completed measures of HD, cognitive style, and psychological stress. The results indicate AE is an underlying mechanism influencing the longitudinal link between life events and HD. Negative life events with clear negative AE directly promoted the development of HD. Positive life events with clear positive AE directly impeded the development of HD. Neutral life events with mixed AE directly and interacting with negative cognitive style promoted the development of HD. The results should increase understanding of the hopelessness theory of depression, and suggest that neutral life events should be important elements in depression therapy.

The association between paternal depressogenic cognitive styles during pregnancy and offspring depressogenic cognitive styles: an 18-year prospective cohort study.

BackgroundPreventing the development of depressogenic or negative cognitive styles could also prevent the development of depression, a leading public health problem worldwide. Maternal negative cognitive styles are a modifiable risk factor for the development of negative cognitive styles in offspring. However, evidence on the role of paternal negative cognitive styles is inconclusive and there have only been a few small studies, which may also have lacked statistical power.MethodsWe used data from the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children (ALSPAC) to investigate the association between paternal negative cognitive styles, measured when mothers were 18 weeks pregnant, and offspring negative cognitive styles 18 years later (N = 6,123). Associations were calculated using linear regression models, before and after adjustment for confounders including maternal negative cognitive styles. We compared associations before and after controlling for depression in parents and offspring, and used multiple imputation to reduce biases that may have arisen due to missing data.ResultsA two‐standard deviation increase in paternal negative cognitive style was associated with a 3‐point increase in offspring negative cognitive style (95% CI 1.36–4.37). This association remained after adjustment for confounders and was independent of depression in both parents and offspring. The effect size was equivalent to that of maternal negative cognitive style, and was also independent of maternal negative cognitive style.ConclusionsOur results suggest that fathers should be included in individual‐ and family‐based interventions designed to prevent the development of depressogenic cognitive styles in adolescent offspring. This could possibly also prevent the development of depression.

The predictive value of childhood recurrent abdominal pain for adult emotional disorders, and the influence of negative cognitive style. Findings from a cohort study.

BackgroundRecurrent abdominal pain (RAP) in childhood is common, with no explanatory pathology identified in the majority of cases. Previous studies have consistently demonstrated an association between childhood RAP and later emotional distress disorders. The aim of this study was to replicate this finding through the analysis of a large dataset, and explore how a negative style of thinking could potentially influence this relationship.MethodsThe Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children (ALSPAC) is a population cohort of children born in the Avon area of the UK, between 1991–1992. Data on childhood RAP was collected via maternal reports at 3, 4, 7 and 9 years. Mood, anxiety and cognitive style were measured at age 18. We controlled for various confounding factors, including maternal anxiety and the child’s pre-existing psychopathology. Logistic regression models were used to examine associations, and moderation effects of cognitive style were analysed using likelihood ratios.ResultsExperiencing RAP at any one time-point is associated with an increased odds of depression and/or anxiety disorder at 18 (OR = 1.41, 95% CI 1.09–1.83). We found a dose-response relationship and each additional marker of RAP was associated with a 26% (CI: 7% to 47%) increase in risk of having a mood and/or anxiety disorder. Individuals who attribute adversity to global, stable or personal factors were at amplified risk.ConclusionsChildhood RAP predicts depression and anxiety disorders at 18 and should be targeted for early intervention. Individuals with a negative cognitive style may be particularly vulnerable, suggesting that cognitive interpretations of physical symptoms could play an important role in long-term health outcomes.

Abnormal emotional processing in maltreated children diagnosed of Complex Posttraumatic Stress Disorder

Maltreated children usually show a specific pattern of emotional and behavioral symptoms that exceed those relating to posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). These symptoms have been defined as Complex PTSD (CPTSD). The underlying attentional mechanisms of abnormal emotional processing and their relation to the clinical presentation of CPTSD are not well understood. A visual dot-probe paradigm involving pre-attentive (i.e., 500ms) and attentive (i.e., 1500ms) presentation rates of neutral versus emotional (i.e., angry, happy or sad) facial expressions was applied. Twenty-one maltreated CPTSD children were compared with twenty-six controls. The results are as follows: an attention bias away from threatening faces and an attentional bias towards sad faces were observed in maltreated CPTSD children during pre-attentive and attentive processing. Whereas the attentional bias away from angry faces was associated with social problems, the attentional bias towards sad faces was associated with depressive and withdrawn symptoms. Therefore, CPTSD children develop maladaptive negative cognitive styles, which may underlie not only social problems (by a cognitive avoidance of threatening stimuli) but also depressive symptoms (by a cognitive approach to sad stimuli). Attention processing abnormalities should be considered as therapeutic targets for new treatment approaches in this population.

Peer victimization predicts heightened inflammatory reactivity to social stress in cognitively vulnerable adolescents.

During adolescence, peer victimization is a potent type of social stressor that can confer enduring risk for poor mental and physical health. Given recent research implicating inflammation in promoting a variety of serious mental and physical health problems, this study examined the role that peer victimization and cognitive vulnerability (i.e. negative cognitive styles and hopelessness) play in shaping adolescents' pro-inflammatory cytokine responses to an acute social stressor. Adolescent girls at risk for psychopathology (n=157; Mage =14.73years; SD=1.38) were exposed to a laboratory-based social stressor before and after which we assessed salivary levels of three key pro-inflammatory cytokines - interleukin-6 (IL-6), interleukin-1β (IL-1β), and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α). As hypothesized, adolescents with greater peer victimization exposure exhibited greater increases in IL-6 and IL1-β in response to the laboratory-based social stressor. Moreover, for all three cytokines individually, as well as for a combined latent factor of inflammation, peer victimization predicted enhanced inflammatory responding most strongly for adolescents with high levels of hopelessness. The findings reveal a biological pathway by which peer victimization may interact with cognitive vulnerability to influence health in adolescence.

Beck’s cognitive theory and the response style theory of depression in adolescents with and without mild to borderline intellectual disability

AimThis study tests the validity of Beck’s cognitive theory and Nolen-Hoeksema’s response style theory of depression in adolescents with and without MBID. MethodsThe relationship between negative cognitive errors (Beck), response styles (Nolen-Hoeksema) and depressive symptoms was examined in 135 adolescents using linear regression. ResultsThe cognitive error ‘underestimation of the ability to cope’ was more prevalent among adolescents with MBID than among adolescents with average intelligence. This was the only negative cognitive error that predicted depressive symptoms. There were no differences between groups in the prevalence of the three response styles. In line with the theory, ruminating was positively and problem-solving was negatively related to depressive symptoms. Distractive response styles were not related to depressive symptoms. The relationship between response styles, cognitive errors and depressive symptoms were similar for both groups. ConclusionThe main premises of both theories of depression are equally applicable to adolescents with and without MBID. The cognitive error ‘Underestimation of the ability to cope’ poses a specific risk factor for developing a depression for adolescents with MBID and requires special attention in treatment and prevention of depression. What this paper adds?Despite the high prevalence of depression among adolescents with MBID, little is known about the etiology and cognitive processes that play a role in the development of depression in this group. The current paper fills this gap in research by examining the core tenets of two important theories on the etiology of depression (Beck’s cognitive theory and Nolen-Hoeksema’s response style theory) in a clinical sample of adolescents with and without MBID. This paper demonstrated that the theories are equally applicable to adolescents with MBID, as to adolescents with average intellectual ability. However, the cognitive bias ‘underestimation of the ability to cope’ was the only cognitive error related to depressive symptoms, and was much more prevalent among adolescents with MBID than among adolescents with average intellectual ability. This suggests that underestimating one’s coping skills may be a unique risk factor for depression among adolescents with MBID. This knowledge is important in understanding the causes and perpetuating mechanisms of depression in adolescents with MBID, and for the development of prevention- and treatment programs for adolescents with MBID.

Effect of Parenting and Peer Stressors on Cognitive Vulnerability and Risk for Depression among Youth.

Parenting behaviors influence clinical depression among youth, but little is known about the developmental processes that may account for this association. This study investigated whether parenting is associated with the onset of clinical depression and depressive symptoms through negative cognitive style, particularly under conditions of high exposure to stressors, in a community sample of children and adolescents (N=275; 59% girls). Observational methods were used to assess positive and negative parenting during a laboratory social-evaluative stressor task. Depressive symptoms and clinical depressive episodes were repeatedly assessed over an 18-month prospective follow-up period. Results supported a conditional indirect effect in which low levels of observed positive parenting during a youth stressor task were indirectly associated with an increased likelihood of experiencing an episode of depression and worsening depressive symptoms over the course of the study through youth negative cognitive style, but only for youth who also experienced a high number of peer stressors. These findings elucidate mechanisms through which problematic parenting may contribute to risk for the development of clinical depression during the transition into and across adolescence. Implications for depression interventions are discussed.

A Simple Model Allowing Modification of the Effect of a Randomized Intervention by Post-Randomization Variables

AbstractWe address several questions relating to the use of standard regression and Structural Nested Mean Model (SNMM) approach (e. g., Ten Have et al. 2007) to analyze post-randomization effect modifiers of the intent-to-treat effect of a randomized intervention on a subsequent outcome, which has not been well examined. We show through simulations that the SNMM performs better with respect to bias of estimates of the intervention and interaction effects than does the corresponding standard interaction approach when the baseline intervention is randomized and the post-randomization factors are subject to confounding, and even when there is no association between the intervention and effect modifier. However, causal inference under the SNMM makes untestable assumptions that the causal contrasts do not vary across observed levels of the intervention and post-randomization factor. In addition, the precision of the SNMM-based estimators depends on the effect of the randomized intervention on the post-randomization factor varying across baseline covariate combinations. These issues and methods are illustrated with the application of the standard and causal methods to a randomized cognitive therapy (CT) trial, for which there is a conceptual model of negative cognitive styles or distortions impacted by CT but then in turn modifying the effect of CT on subsequent suicide ideation and social problem solving outcomes.

537. Attenuated Intrinsic Connectivity within Cognitive Control Network among Individuals with Remitted Depression is Associated with Cognitive Control Deficits and Negative Cognitive Styles

537. Attenuated Intrinsic Connectivity within Cognitive Control Network among Individuals with Remitted Depression is Associated with Cognitive Control Deficits and Negative Cognitive Styles

0610 SUBJECTIVE SLEEP QUALITY RELATES TO DEPRESSIVE SYMPTOMATOLOGY IN OBSTRUCTIVE SLEEP APNEA PATIENTS

Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI) and Insomnia Severity Index (ISI) are common tools to assess sleep disturbance in various patient populations. However, PSQI was shown to relate to psychological variables rather than objective sleep measures in non-clinical samples, and ISI was related to symptoms of depression in OSA patients. We related PSQI and ISI to PSG variables and depressive symptomatology in patients undergoing OSA evaluation. Forty-nine patients (18-59y.o., 24 women, 27 minorities, no neurological or endocrine conditions) completed PSQI (normal range PSQI<6), ISI (normal range: ISI<8), and Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale-Revised (normal range: CESD-R<16) on the evening of PSG. PSQI and ISI scores were regressed on sleep latency, sleep efficiency, awakenings, arousal index, N1%, N3%, REM%, REM latency, AHI, SpO2% nadir, time spent below SpO2 90%, desaturation index, and CESD-R. Age, sex and BMI were used as covariates wherever significant. Mean AHI=22.9 ± 32.5; mean PSQI=8.0 ± 3.3; mean ISI=10.9 ± 5.8; mean CESD-R=10.6 ± 9.1. Higher PSQI was related to higher REM% (p=0.02) and higher CESD-R (p=0.01). Higher ISI was related to higher CESD-R (p=0.01) and not to any PSG variables. In regressing CESD-R onto PSG measures, higher CESD-R related to longer REM latency (p=0.02), with no relationship to other variables. On average, OSA patients reported disturbed sleep on PSQI and ISI, while depressive symptomatology was within normal limits. However, self-reported poor sleep related to depressive symptoms rather than objective measures of sleep disturbance and sleep disordered breathing. Generally sub-clinical CESD-R scores and the direct relationship between CESD-R and REM latency in this sample argue against endogenous depression. To the extent present, depressive symptoms in OSA patients may represent a negative cognitive style, which bears on the patient’s subjective evaluation of their sleep. None.

Attenuated intrinsic connectivity within cognitive control network among individuals with remitted depression: Temporal stability and association with negative cognitive styles.

Many individuals with major depressive disorder (MDD) experience cognitive dysfunction including impaired cognitive control and negative cognitive styles. Functional connectivity magnetic resonance imaging studies of individuals with current MDD have documented altered resting-state connectivity within the default-mode network and across networks. However, no studies to date have evaluated the extent to which impaired connectivity within the cognitive control network (CCN) may be present in remitted MDD (rMDD), nor have studies examined the temporal stability of such attenuation over time. This represents a major gap in understanding stable, trait-like depression risk phenotypes. In this study, resting-state functional connectivity data were collected from 52 unmedicated young adults with rMDD and 47 demographically matched healthy controls, using three bilateral seeds in the CCN (dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, inferior parietal lobule, and dorsal anterior cingulate cortex). Mean connectivity within the entire CCN was attenuated among individuals with rMDD, was stable and reliable over time, and was most pronounced with the right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and right inferior parietal lobule, results that were corroborated by supplemental independent component analysis. Attenuated connectivity in rMDD appeared to be specific to the CCN as opposed to representing attenuated within-network coherence in other networks (e.g., default-mode, salience). In addition, attenuated connectivity within the CCN mediated relationships between rMDD status and cognitive risk factors for depression, including ruminative brooding, pessimistic attributional style, and negative automatic thoughts. Given that these cognitive markers are known predictors of relapse, these results suggest that attenuated connectivity within the CCN could represent a biomarker for trait phenotypes of depression risk. Hum Brain Mapp 38:2939-2954, 2017. © 2017 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Non-violent and violent forms of childhood abuse in the prediction of suicide attempts: Direct or indirect effects through psychiatric disorders?

BackgroundChildhood abuse is linked to suicide. Potential pathways include the increased risk for the development of psychiatric disorders and the contribution of abuse to suicide capability. The current study compared the effects of childhood non-violent and violent abuse in the prediction of suicide attempts, and examined the potential mediated effects of psychiatric disorders. MethodsData from the National Comorbidity Surveys were obtained. At baseline, assessments of childhood non-violent abuse (e.g., parental verbal abuse) and violent abuse (e.g., parental physical abuse, relative rape) were obtained. We also assessed for other adverse childhood experiences, baseline suicidal behaviors, and psychiatric disorders. At the ten-year follow-up, we assessed for psychiatric disorders and suicide attempts that had occurred over time. ResultsBoth non-violent and violent abuse predicted attempts, though participants experiencing violent abuse had significantly higher rates. Bootstrapped mediation analyses determined that the influence of non-violent abuse on suicide attempts was indirect, and exerted its influence through the psychiatric disorders that occurred during the ten-year follow-up. LimitationsThe study relied on retrospective reports of childhood abuse. Further, we could not clearly determine the temporal order of the psychiatric disorders and suicide attempts occurring over follow-up. ConclusionDifferent mechanisms may underlie the pathway between violent and non-violent abuse and suicide attempts. Verbal abuse may lead to negative cognitive styles and psychiatric disorders associated with suicidality; violent abuse may contribute to the capacity for suicide. Interventions may need to be specifically tailored to meet the distinct needs of individuals who have experienced past childhood abuse.

Developmental Trajectories and Origins of a Core Cognitive Vulnerability to Internalizing Symptoms in Middle Childhood

The developmental trajectories and origins of six cognitive vulnerabilities implicated in depression and anxiety among children were examined. A community sample of 7-year-old children and their parents were recruited ( N = 302), and follow-up assessments were made at ages 8, 9, and 11. Although the six cognitive vulnerabilities (i.e., negative cognitive style, dysfunctional attitudes, ruminative style, anxiety sensitivity, intolerance of uncertainty, and fear of negative evaluation) were conceptualized as disorder-specific vulnerabilities, a common latent factor accounted for their shared features. This core vulnerability represented a negative repetitive cognitive style pervaded with a sense of uncontrollability and uncertainty. Latent growth analysis revealed that the averaged trajectory was stable over time. Child negative affectivity, socioeconomic status, and negative life events (assessed at age 7) prospectively predicted the core vulnerability intercept factor. These findings provide novel evidence for a transdiagnostic mechanism that bears directly on a developmentally informed model for child internalizing symptoms.

The influence of parenting on maladaptive cognitive schema: a cross-sectional research on a group of adults

BackgroundThe literature emphasizes the role of early interpersonal experiences in the development of cognitive vulnerability; in particular, interruptions in early family relationships, parental unavailability and dysfunctional parenting are potential evolutionary precursors to negative cognitive style and emotional disorders.Materials and methodsThis study measured the relationship of retrospective ratings on parental bonding with cognitive patterns in a group of Italian adults. The objectives of this study were as follows: to analyze the influence of age and education level on cognitive domains; to verify whether being parents and living at home with parents affect both parenting style and cognitive domains; to investigate how the type of the maternal and paternal parenting independently affects cognitive styles; to measure the predictive variables for the use of cognitive dysfunctional patterns and to investigate age as a moderating variable of the relation between parenting styles and cognitive domains in a group of adult men and women. The research involved 209 adults (118 males and 91 females) living in Sicily (Italy) aged between 20 and 60 years (M = 37.52; SD = 11.42). The research lasted for 1 year. The instruments used were the Parental Bonding Instrument to measure the perception of parenting during childhood and the Young Schema Questionnaire-3 to investigate cognitive patterns.ResultsData show that being a younger adult male with mother’s parenting style characterized by a lower level of nurturance is predictive of the disconnection and rejection domain, whereas, being a younger adult woman, with a higher level of maternal control is predictive of the impaired limits domain.ConclusionThis study underlines that because mothers and fathers establish different bonds with their children, care and control by both parents might impact different domains of development.

The alienation of affection toward parents and influential factors in Chinese left-behind children

ObjectiveAlthough alienation toward parents is important for children (for current mental health status or later interpersonal relationships in adulthood), it is undervalued and even lacks a standardized tool of assessment. Moreover, the large number of left-behind children in China is a cause of public concern. However, their experienced alienation toward their parents remains unclear, which may be important for early detection or intervention for behavioral problems in this population. Hence, the current study aimed to develop an alienation inventory for children and then use it to investigate the experienced alienation toward parents in Chinese left-behind children. MethodsTwo studies were carried out. Study 1 was designed to develop a standard inventory of alienation toward parents (IAP). In study 2, 8361 children and adolescents (6704 of them were left-behind status) of the Chongqing area, aged between 8 and 19 years old, were recruited for investigation. All participants were surveyed with a standard sociodemographic questionnaire, children's cognitive style questionnaire, children's depression inventory, adolescent self-rating life events checklist, and newly built IAP in study 1. ResultsIn study 1, we developed a two-component (communication and emotional distance) and 18-item (9 items for maternal or paternal form, respectively) IAP questionnaire. In study 2, exploratory factor analysis indicated an expected two-factor structure of IAP, which was confirmed by confirmatory factor analysis. The Cronbach's alpha coefficients showed a good reliability (0.887 and 0.821 for maternal and paternal form, respectively). Children with absent mother experienced the highest alienation toward parents. Boys as well as children aged 8–10 years old experienced higher alienation toward parents. Poor communication with parents (sparse or no connection), level of left-behind condition (parents divorced, been far away from parents), and psychosocial vulnerability (stressful life events, negative cognitive style) were risk factors of alienation toward parents. ConclusionsThe current study develops a two-factor (communication and emotional distance) IAP, which offers a reliable tool to assess experienced alienation of affection toward parents in children aged between 8 and 19 years old. Our result is the first investigation of experienced alienation and potential influential factors in Chinese left-behind children. The findings that children with absent mother experience higher alienation toward parents, as well as three recognized risk factors for alienation of affection toward parents (poor communication with absent parents, worse left-behind condition, and psychosocial vulnerability), give valuable guidance for parents who intend to leave or who are already leaving as well as for government policymaking.

Recursive Associations Among Maladaptive Cognitions and Symptoms of Social Anxiety and Depression: Implications for Sex Differences

Recent theories suggest that relationships between cognitive factors and symptoms of anxiety and depression are reciprocal and recursive. The first aim of this study was to evaluate the recursive relationships among two types of maladaptive cognitions (negative automatic thoughts and social looming cognitive style) and symptoms of social anxiety and depression. The second aim of the study was to test whether these reciprocal relationships help to explain sex differences in emotional problems and maladaptive cognitions. A total of 640 adolescents and young adults (52.65% women) participated in this study and filled in questionnaires at two waves, spaced 6 months apart. Participants were between 16 and 25 years old (Mage = 18.27, SDage = 2.21). The path analyses indicated that social looming at T1 predicted social anxiety at T2 and negative self-concept thoughts at T1 predicted social anxiety and depressive symptoms at T2. In addition, social anxiety at T1 predicted social looming at T2 and social anxiety a...

Hallucinations in the months after a trauma: An investigation of the role of cognitive processing of a physical assault in the occurrence of hallucinatory experiences.

The role that cognitive processing of a recent trauma has in the occurrence of hallucinations has not been examined longitudinally. This study investigated trauma-related cognitive predictors of hallucinations in the months following an interpersonal assault. Four weeks after treatment at an emergency department for interpersonal assault injuries, 106 participants were assessed for peri-traumatic cognitive processing, cognitive responses to trauma memories, negative beliefs about the self, Posttraumatic-stress disorder (PTSD), and hallucinatory experiences. Hallucinatory experiences were reassessed six months later. Cognitive processing during trauma (lack of self-referential processing, and dissociation), beliefs about permanent negative change, self-vulnerability, and self-blame and cognitive response styles (thought suppression, rumination, and numbing) were significant predictors of later hallucinations. The way in which trauma is processed may partly determine the occurrence of hallucinations.

Negative cognitive style and attentional switching interact with emotional maltreatment to predict first onset of a major depressive episode in adolescence via hopelessness

Negative cognitive style and attentional switching interact with emotional maltreatment to predict first onset of a major depressive episode in adolescence via hopelessness