Negative Foreign Trade Balance Research Articles

The impact of the war on Ukraine's foreign trade

Abstract The article considers theoretical and practical aspects of the war's impact on Ukraine's foreign trade. The choice of the topic is due to the need to find new ways to minimize the negative impact of the war on the country's foreign trade. In the article, general scientific methods were used: methods of synthesis and analysis; data systematization and comparison; and SWOT-analysis. The information base of this article consisted of statistical data of the State Statistics Service of Ukraine, articles by scientists, and Internet sources. The article analyses the changes in the structure of foreign trade in goods in Ukraine in 2022 compared to 2021. An analysis of changes in the regional structure of Ukraine's foreign trade is carried out. It was found that the exports of Vinnytsia, Volyn, Zakarpattia, Lviv, Odesa, Rivne, Ternopil, Cherkasy, and Chernivtsi regions in 2022 were higher than in 2021. These regions concentrated significant export potential during the war. The main destructive factors of Ukraine's foreign trade development during the war were identified. These factors are: decrease in export and import volumes; negative foreign trade balance; logistical problems, restrictions on the movement of goods, destruction of infrastructure. It is predicted that as a result of the war, the commodity structure of production in Ukraine will change, preference will be given to defense industries. Recommendations for the Ukrainian government to minimize the negative effects of the war on Ukraine's foreign trade are proposed, including: tax benefits for Ukrainian entrepreneurs, support for small and medium-sized enterprises, diversification of product sales markets, development of the domestic market and stimulation of domestic consumption, promotion of high-tech exports, reconstruction and restoration of the infrastructure of Ukraine, etc. The scientific novelty of the article lies in the improvement of ways to minimize the negative impact of the war on Ukraine's foreign trade. The practical value of the article lies in the development of relevant recommendations. It is established that the development of foreign trade in Ukraine will contribute to the stabilization of the national economy and ensure economic growth in the post-war period. Keywords exports, imports, goods, regions of Ukraine, industry

ВНЕШНЯЯ ТОРГОВЛЯ АРМЕНИИ: МЕЖДУНАРОДНОЕ И ЕВРАЗИЙСКОЕ НАПРАВЛЕНИЯ

The article analyzes the international and Eurasian directions of the Republic of Ar- menia’s foreign trade that is caused by the Armenia’s membership in the Eurasian Economic Union since January 1, 2015. The main indicators characterizing the coun- try’s integration into the world economy are the openness of economy, export and import quotas. The dynamics of these indicators for 2002-2022 demonstrates a rather high degree of involvement of the Armenian economy in the world economy. The main characteristics of the Armenia’s foreign trade in goods are the presence of a stable negative balance of foreign trade, which reached its maximum in 2022 (-3.4 billion USD), as well as a large share of raw materials in exports (38%). In gen- eral, the year 2022 became very important for Armenia in terms of a significant in- crease in the volume of foreign trade flows (by 169%). Among the main directions of Armenian export in 2021-2022 there were Russia, China, Switzerland, Bulgaria, the Netherlands and Iraq. The main suppliers of goods to the Armenian market in 2021- 2022 were Russia, China, Iran, Italy, and Germany. In the commodity structure of exports of the Republic of Armenia, 66% of exports in 2022 were in four commodity groups: "mineral products" (19%), "precious and semi-precious stones, precious met- als and articles thereof" (18%), "ready-made foodstuffs" (16%), and "machinery, equipment and mechanisms" (13%). The share of the EEU countries in the foreign trade of the Republic of Armenia has always been significant: at average, for the pe- riod 2002-2022 it accounted for 24% of exports and 28% of imports, the maximum values were reached in 2022: 47% of total exports and 31% of total imports. The ge- ographical composition of the foreign trade flows of the Republic of Armenia to/from the EEU countries has always been characterized by high concentration: 95-97% of these flows went from/to the Russian Federation, 3-4% – Belarus, 1-1.5% Kazakhstan, less than 1% – Kyrgyzstan.

Наращивание объемов агропромышленного производства для обеспечения продовольственной безопасности и увеличения экспортного потенциала АПК России

Currently, the Russian agricultural sector aims to simultaneously achieve two priority goals: to ensure import substitution (or the country’s food security, taking into account rational consumption standards) and to increase exports of agricultural products and food. In this regard, the present study develops proposals for improving agricultural policy and linking these two tasks. The study analysed existing normative legal documents in the field of agricultural policy management and agricultural exports development, relevant foreign experience, as well as Russian and international statistics. It was revealed that an increase in agricultural food production and in the mass of commodities led to export growth. As a result, the negative balance of foreign trade in food decreased, and Russia became a net exporter in 2020-2021. The structure of agri-food exports was examined in order to identify the export potential. Approximately 1/3 of exported goods belong to the group of low-processed products, while only 15 % are highly processed products, which are characterised by a significant negative balance. Competitiveness of products, which plays the most important role in increasing exports, requires the development and implementation of domestic advanced scientific and technological solutions. According to the competitiveness assessment, Russia is a competitive supplier of a wide range of agri-food products, since the prices offered by Russian farmers and exporters are lower or comparable to the prices of major global exporters. Since export growth depends on an increase in agricultural food production, production growth opportunities were considered. The analysis of the consumer purchasing power and food consumption demonstrated their significant differentiation, both by decile groups and by place of residence. The presented findings can be used to improve agricultural policy and adjust state support for the agricultural industry aimed at its effective development.

Компаративный анализ развития внешней торговли в цифровом сегменте по регионам мира

Foreign trade, affected by digitalisation, acquired new features, while its development led to a new redistribution of world regions. The present article aims to reveal specific features and emerging trends in the digital segment of foreign trade and identify leading regions and success factors. In this case, the digital segment includes ICT-equipment and ICT-services trade. UNCTAD statistics for 2000–2019 were examined using the methodology of foreign trade structural and comparative analysis. We hypothesise that there are different development stages in the digital segment of foreign trade characterised by changes of leading regions. In particular, three waves in the development of the digital segment of foreign trade, corresponding to different characteristics, were identified. In the third wave, the growth rate of digital turnover remained the same but its share in the total global turnover decreased. It was revealed that the share of the digital segment is higher than the share of merchandise trade in the countries of one region. Asia-Pacific Region replaced the USA (that moved from the 1st place in the first wave to the 5th position) as the leading region. China, specialising in the export of ICT-equipment, came out on top with the 27.1 % share of digital exports in the country’s total exports, increasing by 15.9 times in 20 years. Russia, whose specialisation is the export of ICT-services, is closer to the end of the top 50 ranking of countries in this segment; its negative foreign trade balance was also revealed. The obtained findings can be useful for specialists developing the foreign digital trade strategy of Russia. In order to increase the potential of national economies, including Russia, in the digital segment of foreign trade, further research should focus on ways to prevent their lagging behind the leaders.

Україна в системі зовнішньоекономічної діяльності: проблеми і шляхи формування умов виходу на міжнародні ринки

The dynamics of Ukraine's foreign trade in recent years was analysed. It has shown that Ukraine is a fairly significant country in the world market for goods and services. In 2020 it had a wide range of trade relations with partners from 234 countries. Ukraine exports nearly USD 50 billion worth of goods and is one of the 50 largest exporters of goods. At the same time, the following problems were identified: a slow and unstable growth in exports, a negative balance of foreign trade in goods, an imperfect structure of exports due to its raw material nature.The principal obstacles to increase exports were identified: the continuation of the armed aggression of the Russian Federation and the loss of the part of enterprises producing export products. Obstacles for Ukraine in the way of exporting products to some third countries associated with the actions of the Russian Federation; low technological level of economic development of the country, the consequence of which is a low level of competitiveness of Ukrainian goods, a small share of high-tech products and mainly raw materials structure of Ukraine's exports, which reduces export revenues; insufficient experience and knowledge of domestic manufacturers in the sphere of foreign economic activity, inability to conduct effective marketing research of foreign markets, present their products on them and establish partnerships.It was concluded that the Export Strategy of Ukraine for 2017-2021 adopted in 2018, which identified the priority tasks for the development of export potential, as well as the established state institution Office for Export Promotion will contribute to the revitalization of the national enterprises on the way to conquering foreign markets. For active and effective foreign trade, it is also necessary to strengthen activities in the field of advanced training and the formation of competencies of entrepreneurs, particularly, among representatives of SMEs, which is necessary for participation in international trade.

ЗАСТОСУВАННЯ СТАТИСТИЧНИХ МЕТОДІВ В УПРАВЛІННІ ЗОВНІШНЬОЕКОНОМІЧНОЮ ДІЯЛЬНІСТЮ ТРАНСПОРТНОЇ КОМПАНІЇ

The purpose of this article is to study the specifics of the application of statistical methods to study the state and trends of international road transport in modern conditions. At the present stage of development of the world economy there are an internationalization of production in various industries and the growth of economic interdependence of economies of different countries. The globalization of economic processes in the world has a qualitative and quantitative impact on foreign economic activity. Application of statistical methods to assess the foreign economic activity of the transport company, which provide practical recommendations for the organization of continuous and selective statistical observations to obtain complete and timely information in conditions of socio – economic tension, high levels of dynamism and uncertainty of external and internal environment, closed border with COVID pandemic. It is defined, that the organization and conduct of statistical research of foreign economic activity of the transport company includes four consecutive interrelated stages. There is a relationship between the various stages of statistical research, which is determined by the sequence of their use, according to the conditions studied by the problems in the transport market, secondary processes, the use of which will allow specific and systematic research. The main indicators of Ukraine’s foreign trade activity during the three quarters of 2020–2021, in particular, exports and imports of goods and services, has been analyzed. It was determined that in Ukraine’s foreign trade there was an increase in exports over imports by 1 billion dollars USA (7.7%). This positive situation for Ukraine has led to a partial reduction in the negative balance of foreign trade in goods. The physical volume of exports of Ukrainian goods exceeds more than twice the physical volume of imported goods, because the structure of goods is mainly raw materials. A large amount of cargo cannot be transported by Ukrainian transport companies because of insufficient environmental permits for trucks to travel in foreign countries and the lack of a clear, well-established system of distribution, as result foreign forwarders enters to domestic market.

THE ANTI-CRISIS ROLE OF THE STATE (BASED ON THE EXPERIENCE OF THE GLOBAL FINANCIAL AND THE CORONOMIC CRISIS)

A system that is a mixed economy has established in modern post-industrial countries and the participation of the state in it is very important. The active role of the state is especially evident in extreme situations, as evidenced by the experience of the most acute of the 21st century - the global financial crisis and the coronary crisis caused by the Covid-19 pandemic. Against the background of the implemented and ongoing changes in the economies of world and nation states in economic theory today we see the revival of the Keynesian doctrine. This doctrine withdrew the United States of America, as well as other countries, out of the worst crisis of the 20th century, out of the so-called „The Great Depression“ and it has been a major factor in the unprecedented economic success of these countries during four decades. A comparative analysis of the global financial and economic crises shows that the state not only plays a leading role in the process of rescuing economies from the crisis, but also its participation in post-crisis development, which implies the so-called Performing the function of «bridge management». Based on the experience of the coronary crisis, in order to ensure the stability and development of the Georgian economy, we consider it necessary: • Based on finding and using local resources, the state should implement economic policies aimed at accelerating the development of the real sector of the economy, diversifying the internal food market, reducing the negative foreign trade balance of agri-food products. This does not mean prioritizing import-substituting production, but focusing on the development of local production of products whose resources currently exist in our country; • The state must create strategic reserves of food, medical supplies and basic necessities, which are vital in a rapidly changing global environment full of uncertainty and risk; • Attitudes towards the tourism sector need to be changed substantially. After the end of the pandemic, the world will return to normal life and the number of tourists entering Georgia will increase again. However, given the lessons of the pandemic, we must bear in mind that it is necessary to: a) move to an intensive model of tourism; B) Organic inclusion of tourism in the local value chain; C) Pay more attention to the development of local tourism.

CUSTOMS POLICY OF UKRAINE IN THE CONTEXT OF CYCLICAL ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

Анотація. Визначено, що економічний розвиток України протягом усього періоду її функціонування був дуже нестабільним. У результаті порівняння тенденцій економічного розвитку України і країн ЄС було визначено, що українська економіка набагато більше схильна до різких коливань економічної активності, тоді як розвиток економік країн ЄС є більш стабільним і передбачуваним без стрімких стрибків економічного розвитку. Проведено аналіз основних факторів, що впливають на циклічність розвитку економіки України. Визначено значний вплив політичної ситуації на економічний розвиток України. Обґрунтовано істотний вплив зовнішньоекономічних факторів на розвиток економічних процесів в Україні. Визначено, що ефективна і виважена митна політика України може сприяти стрімкому розвиткові зовнішньої торгівлі, що допоможе подоланню негативних наслідків циклічності економічного розвитку. Розглянуто створення зони вільної торгівлі між Україною і країнами ЄС у контексті циклічності економічного розвитку. Виявлено основні переваги і вірогідні ризики зменшення тарифних і нетарифних бар’єрів при торгівлі України з країнами ЄС. Розглянуто обсяги торгових потоків між Україною та ЄС, обґрунтовано, що Україна має досить слабку позицію в торговельних відносинах із країнами ЄС, це проявляється у від’ємному сальдо зовнішньої торгівлі з країнами ЄС, а також у превалюванні експорту товарів із низькою доданою вартістю. Проаналізовано обсяги надходжень податків на міжнародну торгівлю до Державного бюджету України, на основі чого визначено, що лібералізація торговельних відноси з ЄС уже в перші періоди створення зони вільної торгівлі привела до досить істотного зниження надходжень мита до Державного бюджету України. Обґрунтовано, що створення зони вільної торгівлі з ЄС було б менш загрозливим з позиції інтересів економіки України, у тому разі якщо б воно відбувалося в період сталого економічно зростання. Ключові слова: економічний цикл, митна політика, мито, міжнародна торгівля, зона вільної торгівлі. Формул: 0; рис.: 3; табл.: 1; бібл.: 10.

Foreign Trade of the Republic of Belarus: Trends and Prospects

Export-import relations and foreign trade operations directly affect the flow of foreign currency into the country, saturation of the Belarusian market, effectiveness of financial activities of business entities and state budget revenues. In this regard, the development of foreign trade and its government regulation in the conditions of constant changes in external factors plays a special role. The article considers foreign trade as an important factor of economic development and analyses it taking into account exports of goods and services and imports of goods and services in order to determine trends and prospects for the foreign trade development in the Republic of Belarus. The purpose of the article is to assess and identify the features of the foreign trade development of the Republic of Belarus in the international business environment for the effective management of foreign trade activities of both the Republic of Belarus as a whole and individual business entities in particular. The main indicators under analysis are balance and trade turnover, exports, share of exports in the GDP, imports, share of imports in the GDP of Belarus. The analysis of the dynamics and structure of Belarusian foreign trade by main types of goods and services has been conducted. The geographical distribution of exports and imports by main countries has been studied. The analysis was based on the official data of the National Statistical Committee of the Republic of Belarus. In the result of the analysis the following conclusions are made: 1. There is a significant share of exports and imports in the GDP of Belarus. 2. There is a negative balance of foreign trade. 3. Exports and imports are carried out mainly with the CIS countries (especially Russia). 4. Mineral products occupy the largest share in the commodity structure of exports and imports of Belarus. 5. Transportation services have the largest share in the structure of exports and imports of services to Belarus.

Ukraine in the Contemporary Integration Processes: Preconditions and Problems

Given that the economic and social recovery of Ukraine is largerly conditional on its integration in the international economic system and effective involvement in the international division of labor, the article’s objective is to analyze preconditions and problems specific to the Ukraine’s integration in the global economic area. Intergration-specific aspects and problems in operation of the transport infrastructure and mining industry of Ukraine, strong and weak sides of Ukraine on the global energy market, the potentials of Ukraine in the agrarian sector are highlighted. It is emphasized that a priority mechanism for increasing the share of Ukraine’s trade on the European agrarian market is Free Trade Zone with EU, but a factor constraining growth in the agricultural exports of Ukraine to EU is failure of the most part of domestic producers to comply with technical, sanitary etc. terms for exporters to EU. The analysis covers statistical data on foreign trade of Ukraine in goods and services in 2016–2018, the commodity structure of Ukraine’s foreign trade in 2018, key indicators of the international trade of Ukraine in 2016–2018. It, above all, shows the negative balance of the Ukrainian foreign trade, which tendency is upward. The tradability index for the Ukrainian economy fell in this period from 81.0% до 79.9%, giving evidence of the decreasing participation of Ukraine in the international division of labor. The essential factors underlying the negative balance of foreign trade in goods are highlighted; measures to reduce the negative balance of foreign trade are proposed. The data showing the progress in Ukraine’s implementation of Association Agreement with EU are summed up. It is concluded that in spite of a series of steps towards the openness of Ukraine for the global market, the processes involved in the formation of the national foreign economic relations mechanism have been contradictory and ineffective. It calls for optimization of regulatory forms for foreign economic relations and implementation of a mechanism complying with the current terms of international economic relations.

АНАЛИЗ ИМПОРТА И ЭКСПОРТА АЛЖИРА

The article analyzes the dynamics and structure of the export-import relations of Algeria. The characteristics of the Algerian economy in the overwhelming majority of sources are consistently associated with the development of the country's energy sector, as well as the relatively low level of development of the socio-economic sphere. In the economy of Algeria, there are clearly marked trends of urbanization, an increase in the quality of life. An important role in this is played by the country's participation in the world export of hydrocarbons. At the turn of the 2000s, like a number of other North African countries, Algeria showed a clear readiness to integrate into the European economy, participate in large infrastructure projects (including the ambitious energy project DESERTEC, in which many EU companies were involved), there was an increase in business activity inside countries and the inflow of foreign investment, increased activity in the country of TNCs. All this taken together allowed researchers to predict in the 21st century. possible "African renaissance". However, the global crisis of 2008 and the subsequent crisis of world energy prices in 2014, the threat of the development in Algeria of a “color revolution” based on the model of neighboring countries of the region forced researchers to reconsider the forecasts for the development of the Algerian economy, revealed structural problems of the Algerian economy, offset by growth energy export revenues. In the context of a significant drop in world prices for energy resources and a slowdown in the growth rates of European economies, the influence of these factors on the state of export-import relations of Algeria, the state's trade balance, and the structure of foreign trade is of interest. The author comes to the conclusion that for Algeria the excessively high dependence of exports on hydrocarbon supplies was the reason for the formation in 2015 of a negative balance of the country's foreign trade for the first time since the early 2000s. The transition of the balance of foreign trade of Algeria to negative states is also influenced by the buildup of the negative balance of foreign trade with the PRC, which over the previous decade became the main trading partner of Algeria.

Development of foreign economic activity of ukrainian enterprises under conditions of economic globalization

In today’s globalized world, international trade, which covers the totality of foreign trade of all countries of the world, is a powerful force of economic development. The economic development of any country is impossible without its active participation in trade relations with other countries of the world. The rapid formation of the global economy contributes to the emergence of a number of opportunities for both large and small businesses. The article considers both advantages and disadvantages of globalization of economy. The article claims that in the current conditions of technological development and rapid integration processes, it is necessary to take into account results of globalization, while forming an effective state policy regarding the realization of foreign trade activities. The country participating in the system of global economic relations should have competitive advantages and improve its competitiveness in order to avoid the impact of negative factors. The article reveals the current state of the development of Ukraine’s foreign trade with other countries of the world, as well as explores Ukraine’s exports and imports structure. Despite a significant increase in the cost of exporting goods and services to the world, Ukraine is still an import-dependent country. The currency liberalization contributed to the reduction of prejudice from foreign counterparties, investors and banks, which allowed Ukrainian enterprises to operate fully in foreign markets, which resulted in a significant reduction in the negative foreign trade balance of the country. The new currency law has provided Ukraine with a base for free capital movement, which brought the country closer to European standards. However, despite significant easing in foreign exchange regulation, Ukrainian manufacturers continue to face a number of both internal and external obstacles to boosting their export activity. The article defines further ways of development of foreign economic activity of domestic enterprises in the conditions of globalization. It has been established that the stable development of the economy is possible only in the conditions of maintaining its openness and rapid development of foreign trade.

Модели глобальных цепочек создания стоимости в нефтеперерабатывающей промышленности

The main purpose of the research is to identify key models of oil exporting countries inclusion into oil refining global value chains. The countries possess high potential of integration into the processing sector with higher value added, but tend to implement it with different degrees of efficiency. Positive balance of foreign trade in refined oil products, calculated in value added terms, can be accompanied by dependence of country’s exports on foreign value added content, and negative balance can be explained by country’s imports of intermediate products with low level of processing to insure domestic production. Five of eight analyzed oil exporting countries show positive dynamics of inclusion into oil refining global value chains. The world biggest oil exporter, Saudi Arabia, doesn’t rely on foreign value added in its exports, whereas country’s forward participation index in global oil refining sector is very high. USA, Canada and Norway pursue specific models of integration into oil processing, which are developed in compliance with countries’ energy policies and aimed to create higher value added. Despite Kazakhstan dependence on Russian economy the country reduces foreign value-added content in its exports of oil refining products and improves participation in GVC. Two of the world leading oil exporters, Mexico and Brazil, demonstrate negative dynamics of inclusion into oil processing sector. High dependence of production on foreign value added, negative balance of foreign trade and poor integration into complex links within value chains are key parameters of ineffective GVC inclusion. The case of Russian Federation could be identified as positive integration with some obstacles. High volumes of Russian exports in oil refining products, positive trade balance in value added terms and high GVC forward participation index are accompanied by country’s increasing dependence on foreign value-added which forces Russia to rethink its participation in global refining sector and implement supporting policies.

ACCOUNTING OF THE THEORY OF GENERATIONS WHEN PLANNING DEVELOPMENT OF TOURISM INDUSTRY OF BELARUS

The development of the tourism industry is one of the strategic directions of development of many countries, the contribution of this industry to the world GDP is growing every year. Over the past two decades, the Republic of Belarus has set itself such a task, which is characterized by global trends in the development of this industry. However, despite the significant tourism potential of Belarus, there is a significant lag in the share of the contribution of this sector of the economy to the country's GDP, which continues to remain a negative balance of foreign trade in tourist services of Belarus. In order to improve the use of the existing potential of Belarus in this area, the article discusses the possibility of using the theory of generations in forecasting trends in demand for tourist services.

The Current State and Priorities of Foreign Trade Cooperation of the Kingdom of Morocco with the Post-Soviet Countries

More than a century has passed since the collapse of the soviet area, but its transformation continues, creating new opportunities for the development of international trade cooperation. The potential of this transformation is mostly used by developed countries to form a more effective foreign trade system, but is not sufficiently used by most developing countries, in particular, the Kingdom of Morocco. At the same time, the issue of diversification of foreign trade remains an urgent task for the country for a long time. The study aims to identify special features and to justify the priorities of foreign trade cooperation of the Kingdom of Morocco with the post-soviet countries.
 The article investigates the features of foreign trade cooperation of the Kingdom of Morocco with the post-soviet countries except for the Baltic States. The export and import matrixes of the Kingdom of Morocco with these countries has been constructed and the key locations of Moroccan foreign trade has been determined in the following regions: Eastern European countries (Ukraine, Belarus and Moldova); Central Asian countries (Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan); the countries of the South Caucasus (Georgia, Armenia, Azerbaijan) and Russia as a territory with unique geographical and economic features. It has been established that the intensity and stability of foreign trade operations of the Kingdom of Morocco is significantly different in the countries and regions of the post-soviet area. The key features of the foreign trade of the Kingdom of Morocco with the post-soviet countries has been defined: the negative balance of foreign trade, the high importance of critical commodities in the import of the country and a significant proportion of technological goods in the country's exports.
 It is substantiated that the priority of development of Moroccan foreign trade cooperation with the post-soviet countries should be to increase exports, primarily electrical products and vehicles. It is indicated the possibility for exports of used cars, cheap clothes, as well as fish and canned fish in regions with low purchasing power. Another priority in the post-soviet area has been proposed, that is to identify alternative markets to diversify the supply of goods traditionally imported by the Kingdom of Morocco from other countries of the world economy, in particular cotton.

GREECE: A EUROPEAN MECHANISM OF THE EXIT FROM THE CRISIS

Historical aspects of the creation of European countries of the integration association − the EU are highlighted. Historical stages and reformation of the accession of the Greek economy to the EU are estimated. After the restoration of the democracy in Greece, the negotiations about its accession, which lasted three years (July 1976 − May 1979), were intensified again. January 1, 1981, Greece joined the European Community. Since the country’s accession to the EU in 1981, GDP has grown substantially. Considering the level of inflation before and after the accession of Greece to the EU, by 1981, the inflation rate was gradually increasing, and after accession, particular in 2002, the inflation rate stabilized when Greece fully implemented the euro. Despite the GDP growth, the decline of the level of inflation, the Greek government carried out a thoughtless populist policy, spending huge loans from the IMF on social welfare of the population. While the national industry required significant investments. That’s why it’s not surprising that, since 1981, Greece’s national products turned out to be uncompetitive with European analogs in the context of liberalization of foreign trade, and its negative foreign trade balance more increased. Although the amount of export and import of goods and services at current prices between Greece and countries of the EU increased. The decrease of labor productivity, lack of modernization measures of agriculture as a priority sector in Greece led to an increase in the budget deficit and the debt load of the Greek economy. In 2008, government revenues declined even more, which led to bankruptcy of enterprises and a large reduction of employees. Also the macrofinancial assistance to Greece over 2010−2018 for the sum of 288.7 billion euros for the exit from the debt crisis is considered. The implementation of three macrofinancial assistance programs required the Greek government to implement a series of reforms that should reduce the debt deficit and debt load. The last effects of loans of the IMF and the European Stabilization Mechanism are evaluated.

Polski handel zagraniczny środkami mechanizacji rolnictwa w latach 2004-2015

Celem artykułu było określenie zmian w handlu zagranicznym środkami mechanizacji rolnictwa w Polsce w latach 2004-2015. Przedstawiono wartość eksportu i importu środków mechanizacji rolnictwa ogółem, według struktury geograficznej, a także dla wybranych maszyn rolniczych. W artykule wykorzystano dane wtórne Ministerstwa Finansów gromadzone w ramach Informacyjnego Systemu Zintegrowanej Taryfy Celnej. Polska w analizowanym okresie charakteryzowała się ujemnym saldem handlu zagranicznego. Wartość importu sprzętu rolniczego zwiększyła się ponad 3-ktotnie, a wartość eksportu blisko 4-krotnie. W 2015 r. Polska najwięcej środków mechanizacji rolnictwa eksportowała do obszaru UE-28 (65% wartości), z czego szczególnie do Niemiec, Francji i Belgii. Z obszaru UE-28, Polska również najwięcej importowała (87% wartości), a głównymi partnerami handlowymi byli Niemcy, Włosi i Francuzi.

Influence of Qualitative Factors on Quantitative Determinants in the Czech Meat Industry Economy

The meat industry is one of the key sectors within the food industry in the Czech Republic. Development, especially in the pork production, is unfavourable. Negative foreign trade balance and low self-sufficiency is reported. Czech market products compete with foreign imports of meat and economic performance of enterprises plays an important role in this field. Article aims to identify qualitative factors limiting the competitiveness of the meat industry and to identify groups of enterprises with key position. The size of a company was confirmed as an only factor limiting the competitiveness. Statistically significant differences among the three performance indicators (out of the four analysed) were demonstrated. The larger the enterprise, the greater values of indicators are. Form of company ownership, drawing subsidies and region of the company cannot be confirmed as factors influencing the economic performance and competitiveness.

Analysis of the Croatian vegetables market

Croatian accession to the European Union has increased exposure of domestic vegetable growers to competition from foreign markets making this market more vulnerable. The aim of this study was to determine the situation and problems on the Croatian vegetables market. Based on the method of supply balance sheets this paper analyzes the vegetable market in Croatia in the period from 2010 to 2012. Results showed that Croatia is not self-sufficient in vegetables production (self- sufficiency rate is less than 67%). In the last three years potatoes, tomatoes, carrots, onions and garlic were Croatia’s most important commodities, which made up 66% of the total domestic production of vegetables. Total vegetables human consumption in 2012 amounted to 114.3 kg / per capita (pc), with the highest per capita consumption being for potatoes (44 kg / pc), followed by tomatoes (15.8 kg / pc), onion and garlic (9.9 kg / pc), and carrots (6.7 kg / pc). The domestic vegetable market is characterized by a negative foreign trade balance and dependence on imports. The biggest amount of vegetables is imported from the Netherlands, Italy and Spain. Insufficient domestic vegetable productions is the result of fragmented structure of mostly small family farms, unmanaged production infrastructure, lack of heating and irrigation systems, as well as lack of systems for protection from hail and frost, and lack of storage capacity. Also, one of the biggest problems of Croatian vegetable market is inefficient distribution because growers often do not have the financial and/or organizational ability to act independently in the market which causes high logistics costs. Competitiveness of the Croatian vegetable market can be increased by consolidation and technological modernization of production, and encouraging vertical and horizontal integration of all stakeholders in the supply chain of vegetables.

Český zahraniční obchod s masem a masnými výrobky

The meat production and meat processing industry are the most important parts of the agribusiness in the Czech Republic. The problem of the industry is its low competitiveness towards foreign producers and processors which results in negative balance of foreign trade. The aim of the article is to evaluate long-term development of value and structure of Czech foreign trade flows of meat and meat products. The analysis covers the period of 2001-2014. The problems of the negative trade balance are revealed through description of the trade flows of meat and meat products, the RCA index and relations between import and export prices. The analysis points out the problems of low competitiveness of the intermediate and finalized meat. Alternatively, Czech Republic has comparative advantage in live animals, sausages and homogenized meat products.