Norway Spruce Needles Research Articles

Effect of carbonization temperature on fuel and caffeine adsorption characteristics of white pine and Norway spruce needle derived biochars

The presence of pharmaceutical compounds in drinking water continues to be problematic in recent times. Adsorption of these compounds is an effective way to mitigate these problems to protect aquatic wildlife. Biochar is a renewable resource that can be used as an adsorption media in this role. This study explored the use of white pine (Pinus strobus) and Norway spruce (Picea abies) needles as feedstocks for producing biochars, which can be utilized as both an adsorbent and solid fuel. The effect of carbonization temperature (500, 700, & 900 ℃) on the solid fuel and caffeine adsorption characteristics of biochars derived from these feedstocks were investigated. The calorific values increased from 29.09–30.30 MJ/kg and 26.62–27.44 MJ/kg for white pine and Norway spruce needle derived biochars, respectively as the carbonization temperature increased. The ignition temperature increased from 390 to 480 ℃ for white pine needle derived biochars and from 368 to 400 °C for Norway spruce needle derived biochars as the carbonization temperature increased. The burnout temperatures for white pine needle derived biochars were between 670–775 ℃ while Norway spruce needle derived biochars presented burnout temperatures of 679–685 ℃. The specific surface areas of the biochars were between 1.72 and 167.71 m2/g. The monolayer caffeine adsorption capacities (qm) of the NS900 and WP900 biochars were 9.27 and 11.85 mg/g, respectively.

Sprouts and Needles of Norway Spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.) as Nordic Specialty-Consumer Acceptance, Stability of Nutrients, and Bioactivities during Storage.

Developing shoots, i.e., sprouts, and older needles of Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.) have traditionally been used for medicinal purposes due to the high content of vitamins and antioxidants. Currently, sprouts are available as, for example, superfood and supplements. However, end-product quality and nutritive value may decline in the value-chain from raw material sourcing to processing and storage. We studied (1) impacts of different drying and extraction methods on nutritional composition and antioxidative properties of sprouts and needles, (2) differences between sprouts and needles in nutritional composition and microbiological quality, and (3) production scale quality of the sprouts. Additionally, (4) sprout powder was applied in products (ice-cream and sorbet) and consumer acceptance was evaluated. According to our results, older needles have higher content of dry matter, energy, and calcium, but lower microbial quality than sprouts. Sprouts showed a higher concentration of vitamin C, magnesium, potassium, and phosphorus than older needles. Freeze-drying was the best drying method preserving the quality of both sprouts and needles, e.g., vitamin C content. The antioxidative activity of the sprout extracts were lower than that of needles. Ethanol-water extraction resulted in a higher content of active compounds in the extract than water extraction. Sensory evaluation of food products revealed that on average, 76% of consumers considered sprout-containing products very good or good, and a creamy product was preferred over a water-based sorbet.

Interactions of saprotrophic and root symbiotic fungi control the transformation of humic substances and phosphorus in Norway spruce needle litter

The interactions of fungal guilds have recently been proposed as drivers of organic matter transformation in forest soils. We conducted a pot experiment with Norway spruce seedlings planted in spruce needle litter inoculated with several fungal strains belonging to different ecological guilds (saprotrophic, mycorrhizal, and root endophytic) to assess how the fungi and their interactions affect the transformation of humic substances (HS) and phosphorus (P) in the litter. Several methods for the characterization of P forms and HS were employed, including 31P NMR, UV–Vis and FTIR spectroscopy.Our results show that fungal interactions influence not only the flow of P in decaying (plant) litter but also the transformation of the soil organic matter itself. Pots with saprotrophic Gymnopus androsaceus generally retained more P and prevented the accumulation of phosphonates caused by mycorrhizal Hyaloscypha finlandica, highlighting the strong competitive ability of the former species. The increased mineralization of P caused by G. androsaceus was not observed in the combined treatments, suggesting that other present fungi took up part of the inorganic P. The tested fungi did not affect the amount of HS produced but changed the characteristics of the HS. Mycorrhizal H. finlandica and root endophytic Phialocephala fortinii increased the relative proportion of carboxylic moieties in the HS regardless of the presence or absence of G. androsaceus, probably via the production and incorporation of melanins. The UV–Vis absorbance characteristics of the HS were significantly influenced by fungal interactions. Mycorrhizal H. finlandica and Hebeloma bryogenes retarded humification, as determined by the A4/6 ratio. We attribute the similar shift observed in Serpula himantoides to the partial oxidative degradation of HS.Our study shows that fungal root endophytes can significantly contribute to litter transformation along with mycorrhizal and saprotrophic fungi. The extent and patterns of the transformation seem to be species-dependent in all studied fungal groups.

Un caz de mortalitate în masă a larvelor de Lasiocampa quercus quercus f. alpina în Munții Călimani (România)

În 2017, mass-media din Anglia și din alte țări au reacționat frenetic la știrea că omizele de Lasiocampa quercus din West Pennine Moors, în Lancashire, au fost lovite de „virusul zombie”. Un fenomen similar a fost observat în august 2018, în Munții Calimani, România pe o suprafață de aproximativ 30 ha. Larvele formei alpine ale subspecii L. quercus quercus au fost găsite în coroana unor exemplare mici de molid (Picea abies) sau pe tufele de jneapăn (Pinus mugo) și - într-o măsură mai mică - pe cele de ienupăr (Juniperus sp .). Unele dintre acestea erau în viață, dar slăbite, majoritatea fiind moarte, atârnate de ace sau de ramuri. Majoritatea larvelor moarte erau încă întregi, dar cu un corp moale, doar unele dintre ele prezentau cuticula sfâsiată. Simptomele prezentate de larve sugerează că au murit în urma unei infecții cu Lasiocapa quercus NPV. Înainte de a muri, larvele au consumat ace de molid și jneapăn, după ce epuizaseră resursele alimentare obișnuite în acel loc, și anume frunzele de Vaccinium spp. Vremea ploioasă din ultimele două luni (iunie și iulie) ar fi putut contribui la răspândirea bolii printre larve. Acesta este primul caz de proliferare în masă a speciei L. quercus observată și raportată în România și, de asemenea, primul caz de epizootie cauzată de baculovirus specific acestei specii din țara noastră.

Nutrient Dynamics and Decomposition rate of Norway Spruce Needles in Stråsan and Lajim stands

Nutrient Dynamics and Decomposition rate of Norway Spruce Needles in Stråsan and Lajim stands

Adaptation of subpopulations of the Norway spruce needle endophyte Lophodermium piceae to the temperature regime

Lophodermium piceae represents the most common Norway spruce needle endophyte. The aim of this study was to find out whether subpopulations of L. piceae in climatically different environments (in which Norway spruce occurs natively) are adapted to local thermal conditions. L. piceae’s ability for thermal adaptation was investigated by determining growth rates of 163 isolates in vitro at four different temperatures: 2, 6, 20 and 25 °C. Isolates were obtained between 1995 and 2010 from apparently healthy needles sampled in Finland, Poland, Switzerland, Italy and southeastern Siberia. The sampling sites represent seven climatically distinct locations. Results were evaluated in relation to the age and geographic origin of the isolate, in addition to the highest and lowest average monthly temperature of the sampling location. We found a significant correlation between the growth rate and the age of the isolate at 25 °C. Variation in growth rates between subpopulations was low compared to within subpopulations. Only at 2 °C did statistically significant differences between the average growth rates of subpopulations emerge. These results suggest that L. piceae covers the whole distribution area of Norway spruce but that generally the thermal reaction norm of its subpopulations has not changed according to local temperature ranges, despite high contrast in thermal conditions across this vast area. Therefore, it would appear that the thermal environment is not a crucial factor in assessing the fitness of this fungal species within the native range of Norway spruce.

UNBIASED ESTIMATION OF NORWAY SPRUCE (PICEA ABIES L. KARST.) CHLOROPLAST STRUCTURE: HETEROGENEITY WITHIN NEEDLE MESOPHYLL UNDER DIFFERENT IRRADIANCE AND [CO2

The main objective of this study was to find out whether the selected chloroplast characteristics measured in the mesophyll layer nearest to the needle surface (i.e., the first mesophyll layer) could be representative for the whole needle cross section. Two chloroplast sampling approaches were applied on Norway spruce needles during the investigation of the effects of different levels of air CO2 concentration and irradiance: (i) sampling only from the first mesophyll layer, and (ii) systematic uniform random (SUR) sampling. The selected characteristics were: (i) chloroplast area, (ii) starch grain area, and (iii) starch areal density on median chloroplast cross sections, and (iv) chloroplast number per unit of needle volume. It was shown that the first mesophyll layer was not representative for estimating all evaluated characteristics except the chloroplast area. Sampling only there caused obtaining slightly biased results, while SUR sampling gave unbiased estimations at the cost of longer measuring time. The major effect of studied factors was in starch areal density and starch grain area, which were larger in sun needles in elevated CO2 concentration in comparison with sun needles in ambient CO2 concentration. In conclusion, it was demonstrated that the first layer of mesophyll is not always representative for the needle cross section. If technically feasible, SUR is recommended for analysis of chloroplast ultrastructure. The simplified sampling design can be applied, e.g., for comparisons of many different treatments. However, it should be combined with other approaches to characterize the chloroplast function and the results carefully considered and interpreted.

Changes in phosphorus concentration in needles of adult Norway spruce - nutrient re-translocation or dilution effect?

Regarding the low availability of phosphorus in soil, tree internal cycling of phosphorus through re-translocation among needles would be a good strategy for conifers to cope with soil phosphorus deficiency and to support new needles in annual growth. Therefore, the relationship between the amount of plant-available phosphorus in the soil and the differences in concentrations of phosphorus among first- and second-year needles (P-difference Ny1 − Ny2) of adult Norway spruce was examined. No significant correlation could be detected between the stocks of available phosphorus extracted using citric acid and P-difference Ny1 − Ny2, even for trees with deficient nutritional status. The temporal variations of P-difference Ny1 − Ny2 at single plots showed the same order of magnitude as the variability between plots. The typically lower concentrations of phosphorus in second-year needles result mainly from an increase in needle weight of older needles. The net phosphorus re-translocation into younger needles appears to be of minor importance.

Phytoliths of six woody species important in the Carpathians: characteristic phytoliths in Norway spruce needles

Phytoliths—also known as plant opals—are preserved in soils and sediments and have taxonomical relevance, therefore phytoliths can be fingerprints of the vegetation of the period from which they originated. Comparative phytolith studies are essential for finding phytolith morphotypes with taxonomic relevance. These are used to build reference collections for future palaeoecological and archaeobotanical studies. Biogenic silica extracted from the leaves of six woody species commonly occurring in temperate climate plant communities was examined using light and scanning electron microscope methods (Deciduous broad-leaved species: Corylus avellana, Fagus sylvatica, Quercus robur. Coniferous species: Abies alba, Picea abies, Pinus sylvestris). The element content of phytoliths was analysed by SEM EDX and the phytolith taxonomic diagnostic potential of element content was tested by discriminant analysis. An inventory of phytolith types with their anatomical origin was provided and type-frequencies were assessed. Three species have been systematically screened here for the first time in detail (C. avellana, F. sylvatica, Q. robur). This is the first time that a characteristic cubical phytolith morphotype (“Picea—blocky type”) originating from transfusion tissue was described as a distinct layer encompassing the central cylinder of the needle. High concentrations of aluminium and magnesium in phytoliths are associated with two of three conifer species. A. alba and P. sylvestris could be differentiated statistically on the basis of elemental content. Our findings open up the possibility to identify these taxa based on their phytoliths and it is anticipated that this could be a useful tool for phytolith identification originating from soils and sediments as well. Moreover, Picea—blocky type allows comparative, in situ studies (amongst others isotopic) to provide the possibility of finding further measurable proxies.

Effects of mild drought on the morphology of sun and shade needles in 20-year-old Norway spruce trees

Several studies have looked at how individual environmental factors influence needle morphology in conifer trees, but interacting effects between drought and canopy position have received little attention. In this study, we characterized morphological responses to experimentally induced drought stress in sun exposed and shaded current-year Norway spruce needles. In the drought plot trees were suffering mild drought stress, with an average soil water potential at 50 cm depth of -0.4 MPa. In general, morphological needle traits had greater values in sun needles in the upper canopy than in shaded needles in the lower canopy. Needle morphology 15 months after the onset of drought was determined by canopy position, as only sun needle morphology was affected by drought. Thus, canopy position was a stronger morphogenic factor determining needle structure than was water availability. The largest influence of mild drought was observed for needle length, projected needle area and total needle area, which all were reduced by ~27% relative to control trees. Needle thickness and needle width showed contrasting sensitivity to drought, as drought only affected needle thickness (10% reduction). Needle dry mass, leaf mass per area and needle density were not affected 15 months after the onset of mild drought. Our results highlight the importance of considering canopy position as well as water availability when comparing needle structure or function between conifer species. More knowledge about how different canopy parts of Norway spruce adapt to drought is important to understand forest productivity under changing environmental conditions.

Fertilization Changes Chemical Defense in Needles of Mature Norway Spruce (Picea abies).

Nitrogen availability limits growth in most boreal forests. However, parts of the boreal zone receive significant levels of nitrogen deposition. At the same time, forests are fertilized to increase volume growth and carbon sequestration. No matter the source, increasing nitrogen in the boreal forest ecosystem will influence the resource situation for its primary producers, the plants, with possible implications for their defensive chemistry. In general, fertilization reduces phenolic compound concentrations in trees, but existing evidence mainly comes from studies on young plants. Given the role of the phenolic compounds in protection against herbivores and other forest pests, it is important to know if phenolics are reduced with fertilization also in mature trees. The evergreen Norway spruce is long-lived, and it is reasonable that defensive strategies could change from the juvenile to the reproductive and mature phases. In addition, as the needles are kept for several years, defense could also change with needle age. We sampled current and previous year needles from an N fertilization experiment in a Norway spruce forest landscape in south-central Norway to which N had been added annually for 13 years. We analyzed total nitrogen (N) and carbon (C), as well as low-molecular phenolics and condensed tannins. Needles from fertilized trees had higher N than those from controls plots, and fertilization decreased concentrations of many flavonoids, as well as condensed tannins in current year needles. In previous year needles, some stilbenes and condensed tannins were higher in fertilized trees. In control trees, the total phenolic concentration was almost five times as high in previous year needles compared with those from the current year, and there were great compositional differences. Previous year needles contained highest concentrations of acetophenone and stilbenes, while in the current year needles the flavonoids, and especially coumaroyl-astragalins dominated. Condensed tannins did not differ between current and previous year needles from control trees. In conclusion, the phenolic defense of current year needles of mature P.abies trees was strongly changed upon fertilization. This may imply that nitrogen deposition and forest fertilization leave forests less robust in a time when pests may take advantages of a changing climate.

Anthropogenic deposition of heavy metals and phosphorus may reduce biological N2 fixation in boreal forest mosses

A study was undertaken to test the effects of molybdenum (Mo) and phosphorus (P) amendments on biological nitrogen (N) fixation (BNF) by boreal forest moss-associated cyanobacteria. Feather moss (Pleurozium schreberi) samples were collected on five sites, on two dates and at different roadside distances (0–100m) corresponding to an assumed gradient of reactive N deposition. Potential BNF of Mo and P amended moss samples was measured using the acetylene reduction assay. Total N, P and heavy metal concentrations of mosses collected at 0 and 100m from roadsides were also measured. Likewise, the needles from Norway spruce trees (Picea abies) at different roadside distances were collected in late summer and analyzed for total N, P and heavy metals. There was a significant increase in BNF with roadside distance on 7-of-10 individual Site×Date combinations. We found no clear evidence of an N gradient across roadside distances. Elemental analyses of feather moss and Norway spruce needle tissues suggested decreasing deposition of heavy metals (Mo-Co-Cr-Ni-V-Pb-Ag-Cu) as well as P with increasing distance from the roadside. The effects of Mo and P amendments on BNF were infrequent and inconsistent across roadside distances and across sites. One particular site, however, displayed greater concentrations of heavy metals near the roadside, as well as a steeper P fertility gradient with roadside distance, than the other sites. Here, BNF increased with roadside distance only when moss samples were amended with P. Also at this site, BNF across all roadside distances was higher when mosses were amended with both Mo and P, suggesting a co-limitation of these two nutrients in controlling BNF. In summary, our study showed a potential for car emissions to increase heavy metals and P along roadsides and underscored the putative roles of these anthropogenic pollutants on BNF in northern latitudes.

Norway spruce needle size and cross section shape variability induced by irradiance on a macro- and microscale and CO2 concentration

Needle cross-section parameters differ according to needle orientation on a shoot corresponding to irradiance microgradient. Irradiance is a stronger morphogenic factor determining needle size and shape than CO2 concentration. We investigated the effects of irradiance on macroscale and microscale, elevated CO2 concentration [CO2], and their interaction on Norway spruce (Picea abies L. Karst.) needles. The irradiance macroscale was represented by sun and shade shoots from two vertical positions in a crown and the irradiance microscale corresponded to spatial orientation of individual needles on a shoot (upper, side, and lower needles relative to the shoot axis). Determination of needle cross section shape using generalized Procrustes analysis and principal component analysis provided a novel approach for evaluating needle morphometry. As expected, shade needles on the irradiance macrogradient were flatter and had less cross-sectional area and smaller volume than did sun needles. The irradiance microgradient was detected within both sun and shade shoots, being steeper in sun shoots than shade shoots. On the microscale, the irradiance gradient induced changes in needle size and cross section shape according to needles’ orientation on a shoot. Due to a more favourable light environment the traits of the upper needles within both sun and shade shoots resembled more the sun needle traits. The sun needle volume was significantly larger in the case of elevated [CO2] as compared to ambient [CO2]. Irradiance was a stronger morphogenic factor determining needle size and cross section shape compared to CO2 concentration. We demonstrated that generalized Procrustes analysis can be a very powerful tool in ecophysiological studies for evaluating small-scale, subtle leaf shape changes on an intraspecific level caused by environmental factors.

Contamination of environment in the road surroudings – impact of road salting on Norway spruce (Picea abies) and Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris)

A comprehensive overview of the influence of transport on the environment is presented in this study. The complex analysis of soil and needle samples provides an extensive set of data, which presents elemental contamination of the environment near roads. Traffic pollution (including winter road treatment) has a significant negative influence on our environment. Besides sodium and chlorine from winter maintenance many other elements are emitted into the environment. Three possible sources of contamination are assumed for environmental contamination evaluation: car emission, winter maintenance and abrasion from breaks and clutches. The chemical analysis focused on the description of samples from inorganic point of view. The influence of the contamination potential on the sodium and chlorine content in the samples of 1st year-old and 2nd year-old needles of Norway spruce (Picea abies) and Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris) is discussed. Additional soil samples were taken from each sampling site and analyzed to get insight in the sodium and chlorine distribution. Statistical evaluation was used for interpretation of complex interaction patterns between element concentrations in different aged needles based on localities character including distance from the road and element concentration in soils. This species of needles were chosen because of its heightened sensitivity towards salinization. The study was conducted in different parts of the Czech Republic. The resulting database is a source of valuable information about the influence of transport on the environment.

Changes in the nutrition and health status of young Norway spruce stands in the Krkonoše Mts. in a 17-year period

For 17 Norway spruce stands located in the Krkonoše Mts. in the Czech Republic a long-term assessment of defoliation, height increment, foliage concentration of nutrients (N, P, Ca, K, Mg) and stress elements (S, F) was carried out. The results show a decrease of defoliation and a slight increase of height increment, which occur in accordance with the decreasing concentration of sulphur in spruce needles. However, neither sulphur concentration nor height increment trends are significant, suggesting that both the main pollution abatement and the growth resumption took place already in the 1990’s. During the late 1990’s the average spruce defoliation was greater than 35%, while since 2007 it has fluctuated between 18 and 25%, which corresponds with the figures for the forest stands located in the other regions of the Czech Republic. The evaluation of single nutrient concentrations detected occasional deficiencies of P and Mg at individual plots. The good N nutrition (> 15 mg N·g<sup>–1</sup>) in combination with a significantly decreasing trend of P, K and Ca concentrations in Norway spruce needles may potentially constitute a problem in regard to both the future health and the stability of forest stands in the studied region.

Erratum to: Transcriptional and post-translational control of chlorophyll biosynthesis by dark-operative protochlorophyllide oxidoreductase in Norway spruce.

Unlike angiosperms, gymnosperms use two different enzymes for the reduction of protochlorophyllide to chlorophyllide: the light-dependent protochlorophyllide oxidoreductase (LPOR) and the dark-operative protochlorophyllide oxidoreductase (DPOR). In this study, we examined the specific role of both enzymes for chlorophyll synthesis in response to different light/dark and temperature conditions at different developmental stages (cotyledons and needles) of Norway spruce (Picea abies Karst.). The accumulation of chlorophyll and chlorophyll-binding proteins strongly decreased during dark growth in secondary needles at room temperature as well as in cotyledons at low temperature (7 °C) indicating suppression of DPOR activity. The levels of the three DPOR subunits ChlL, ChlN, and ChlB and the transcripts of their encoding genes were diminished in dark-grown secondary needles. The low temperature had minor effects on the transcription and translation of these genes in cotyledons, which is suggestive for post-translational control in chlorophyll biosynthesis. Taking into account the higher solubility of oxygen at low temperature and oxygen sensitivity of DPOR, we mimicked low-temperature condition by the exposure of seedlings to higher oxygen content (33%). The treatment resulted in an etiolated phenotype of dark-grown seedlings, confirming an oxygen-dependent control of DPOR activity in spruce cotyledons. Moreover, light-dependent suppression of mRNA and protein level of DPOR subunits indicates that more efficiently operating LPOR takes over the DPOR function under light conditions, especially in secondary needles.

Transcriptional and post-translational control of chlorophyll biosynthesis by dark-operative protochlorophyllide oxidoreductase in Norway spruce.

Unlike angiosperms, gymnosperms use two different enzymes for the reduction of protochlorophyllide to chlorophyllide: the light-dependent protochlorophyllide oxidoreductase (LPOR) and the dark-operative protochlorophyllide oxidoreductase (DPOR). In this study, we examined the specific role of both enzymes for chlorophyll synthesis in response to different light/dark and temperature conditions at different developmental stages (cotyledons and needles) of Norway spruce (Picea abies Karst.). The accumulation of chlorophyll and chlorophyll-binding proteins strongly decreased during dark growth in secondary needles at room temperature as well as in cotyledons at low temperature (7°C) indicating suppression of DPOR activity. The levels of the three DPOR subunits ChlL, ChlN, and ChlB and the transcripts of their encoding genes were diminished in dark-grown secondary needles. The low temperature had minor effects on the transcription and translation of these genes in cotyledons, which is suggestive for post-translational control in chlorophyll biosynthesis. Taking into account the higher solubility of oxygen at low temperature and oxygen sensitivity of DPOR, we mimicked low-temperature condition by the exposure of seedlings to higher oxygen content (33%). The treatment resulted in an etiolated phenotype of dark-grown seedlings, confirming an oxygen-dependent control of DPOR activity in spruce cotyledons. Moreover, light-dependent suppression of mRNA and protein level of DPOR subunits indicates that more efficiently operating LPOR takes over the DPOR function under light conditions, especially in secondary needles.

Decomposition and stabilisation of Norway spruce needle-derived material in Alpine soils using a 13C-labelling approach in the field

Only scarce information is available on how organic C is incorporated into the soil during the decay and how (micro) climate influences this process. Therefore, we investigated the effect of exposure and elevation on the organic litter decomposition and C-stabilisation in acidic soils of an Alpine environment. An experiment with artificially 13C labelled Norway spruce needles was carried out at north- and south-exposed sites between 1200 and 2400 m a.s.l. in the Italian Alps using mesocosms. After 1 year, the 13C recoveries of the bulk soil were 18.6% at the north-facing slopes and 31.5% at the south-facing slopes. A density fractionation into a light (LF; ≤1.6 g cm−3) and a heavy fraction (HF; >1.6 g cm−3) of the soil helped to identify how the applied substrate was stabilised. At the northern slope, 10.5% of the substrate was recovered in the LF and 8.1% in the HF and at the south-facing slope 22.8% in the LF and 8.1% in the HF. The overall 13C recovery was higher at the south-facing sites due to restricted water availability. Although the climate is humid in the whole area, soil moisture availability becomes more important at south-facing sites due to higher evapotranspiration. However, at sites >1700 m a.s.l, the situation changed, as the northern slope had higher recovery rates. At such altitudes, temperature effects are more dominant. This highlights the importance of locally strongly varying edaphic factors when investigating the carbon cycle.

Seasonal dynamics of polysaccharides in Norway spruce (Picea abies)

Annual dynamics of accumulation and changes in the monosaccharide composition of pectin-, arabinan- and galactan-containing polysaccharides and binding glycans isolated from greenery (thin branches with needles) of Norway spruce were investigated in this study. The polysaccharides were compared with polysaccharides of Siberian fir according to the yields, composition and content of typical components. It was shown that Norway spruce greenery contains lowly methyl-esterified pectin extracted with ammonium oxalate, which is a part of protopectic complex and is bound with components of cell walls via ionic bonds. In contrast, Siberian fir greenery contains mainly water-extracted highly methyl-esterified pectin, weakly bound to cell wall components. It was concluded that an autumn-winter period is the optimal time for harvesting Norway spruce and Siberian fir greenery for isolation of the pectic polysaccharides. The revealed regularities indicate that there is a certain biorhythm of accumulation of the compounds, probably determined by genetic factors.

Do foliar fungal communities of Norway spruce shift along a tree species diversity gradient in mature European forests?

Abstract Foliar fungal species are diverse and colonize all plants, though whether forest tree species composition influences the distribution of these fungal communities remains unclear. Fungal communities include quiescent taxa and the functionally important and metabolically active taxa that respond to changes in the environment. To determine fungal community shifts along a tree species diversity gradient, needles of Norway spruce were sampled from trees from four mature European forests. We hypothesized that the fungal communities and specific fungal taxa would correlate with tree species diversity. Furthermore, the active fungal community, and not the total community, would shift along the tree diversity gradient. High-throughput sequencing showed significant differences in the fungal communities in the different forests, and in one forest, tree diversity effects were observed, though this was not a general phenomenon. Our study also suggests that studying the metabolically active community may not provide additional information about community composition or diversity.