Needle Surface Area Research Articles

Foliage Attributes for Current-year Shoots of Fraser Fir

Current-year shoots of Fraser fir [Abies fraseri (Pursh) Poir.] were sampled in Christmas tree plantations in western North Carolina. Needles were sampled at five positions on each shoot: 0% (proximal end), 25%, 50%, 75%, and 100% (distal end). At each position, needles were collected in a tight left-hand spiral beginning on the abaxial side (bottom) and ending on the adaxial side (top). Length, width, thickness, dry weight, and projected surface area were determined for each needle. Specific area (one-sided) averaged 45 cm2·g-1 and increased from the shoot base to the tip. On individual shoots, needle dimensions were maximal at the middle (50% position). Within sample positions, needle dimensions increased from the adaxial to the abaxial side. Needle length, weight, and area differed more than width or thickness by position. Needle surface area per centimeter of shoot was relatively stable. Regression models using shoot length, diameter, needle density, and average needle length or weight yielded good estimates of total foliage area and weight.

Mineral nutrition of Pinus caribaea and Eucalyptus camaldulensis seedlings inoculated with Pisolithus tinctorius and Thelephora terrestris

Abstract Seedlings of Eucalyptus camaldulensis Dehnh. and Pinus caribaea Morelet var. hondurensis Loock. were inoculated witH mycelium of Pisolithus tinctorius (Pers.) Coker & Couch and Thelephora terrestris Ehrl. per Fr. After four months in glasshouse culture, the roots of Pisolithus inoculated seedlings had significantly more ectomycorrhizae than Thelephora inoculated seedlings. The Pisolithus inoculated Eucalyptus seedlings were significantly larger in size than plants colonized with T. terrestris. Shoot dry weight and needle surface area of P. caribaea seedlings were significantly increased by Pisolithus inoculation. Inoculation with Pisolithus significantly increased N, P, K, Ca, Mg, Cu, Fe, Mn, Zn, and B content in E. camaldulensis seedlings compared to Thelephora inoculated plants. In contrast, only N, Mg, Cu, Fe, Zn, and B content was significantly increased by Pisolithus colonization of P. caribaea, compared to Thelephora inoculated seedlings. These data suggest ectomycorrhizal fungi differs in their ability to provide nutrients to host symbiont.

Comparison of methods for estimating surface area of water-stressed and fully hydrated pine needle segments for gas exchange analysis.

A nondestructive technique for repeatedly estimating total surface area of water-stressed pine (Pinus taeda L.) fascicle segments was evaluated. Fascicle radius was measured with a digital caliper and needle surface area calculated on the assumption that the needles were segments of a cylinder. High correlations (r >/= 0.94) were found between surface area estimated in this way and surface area calculated (a) from needle displacement, also on the assumption that needles are segments of a cylinder, and (b) from needle dry weight using a regression between dry weight and surface area estimated from needle displacement. The caliper-radius method gave slightly lower estimates of surface area than the other methods. However, differences among surface area estimates made with the three methods and between estimates made on water-stressed and fully hydrated needles were small relative to variances of leaf gas exchange measurements.

Photosynthesis of a Scots pine shoot: a comparison of two models of shoot photosynthesis in direct and diffuse radiation fields.

Two models of shoot photosynthesis, the needle surface element model (SEM) and needle volume element model (VEM), were tested against empirical data obtained from measurements of the photosynthetic response of twelve Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) shoots in direct and diffuse radiation. The models assume that shoot photosynthesis is obtained as the integrated response of either all needle surface area elements (SEM) or all needle volume elements (VEM) of the shoot. The models differ in that needles are treated as optically black in SEM, whereas in VEM radiation penetrates into the needle. The photosynthetic response of a surface/volume element was described as a Blackman-type curve and the distributions of irradiance on the elements were derived by computer simulation, based on a model of shoot geometry. The parameters (initial slope and maximum rate) of the Blackman-curve of an element were estimated iteratively by the method of least squares, i.e., by minimizing the residual sum of squares of simulated and measured rates of shoot photosynthesis. The parameter estimation was done separately for direct and diffuse radiation, and the models were evaluated based on the notion that, for the "ideal" model, the estimated parameter values should be the same in direct and diffuse radiation. Both models produced shoot photosynthesis curves that agreed well with measurements, but there was a discrepancy in the estimated parameter values, indicating that differences in the photosynthetic response of shoots in direct and diffuse radiation could not be explained solely on the basis of the simulated irradiance distributions. The agreement was, however, much better for the volume element model, which accounts for penetration of radiation into the needles.

Foliar injury symptoms and pigment concentrations in red spruce saplings in the southern Appalachians

The frequency and percent surface area covered by necrotic flecking on red spruce (Picearubens Sarg.) needles from sapling-sized trees were examined on nine research sites on three mountains in the southern Appalachians. Foliar pigment analysis was conducted on trees from two of the nine research sites. Flecking increased with foliar age on all sites, and on two of the mountains the area covered by flecks increased with elevation. Above 1720 m on Clingman's Dome, foliar flecking was found to constitute >8% of the upper needle surface area of 1-year-old needles. Chlorophyll a and b concentrations increased with foliar age and were greater in trees growing at the mid-elevation site (1720 m) than at the high-elevation site (1935 m) on Clingman's Dome. Pigment concentrations did not correspond to foliar flecking frequency at these two sites. Foliar flecking appears to increase over winter, and its widespread occurrence throughout the southern Appalachians suggests that regional rather than local site-related phenomena are involved.

Estimation of leaf area at the level of branch, tree and stand in Cryptomeria japonica

AbstractThe frequency distribution of diameter (x) in foliage shoot segments, ø(x), was examined in 18 branches at different height levels of three trees in a 25‐yr‐old sugi (Cryptomeria japonica D. Don) plantation. The ø‐x relationships were approximated by power‐form equations, in which the exponent differed among the branches from −0.6 to −4.2. Leaf area (SB) and leaf weight (WB) of a branch were estimated on the basis of the ø‐x relationship, and the dependency of specific leaf area (SLA0) and density (ρ0) of a foliage shoot segment on its x. SLAB value of a branch defined by SB/WB ranged from 27 to 80 cm2 g. d.w.−1 according to the exponent in the function of ø(x). Total leaf area (u) and leaf weight (wl) of a tree were estimated by summation of SB and WB for seven sample trees. The SLAT value of a tree defined by u/wl ranged from 65 to 76 cm2 g d.w.−1 and increased with stem diameter at clear length (DB). By use of the allometric equations between u and DB, LAI of the plot was estimated to be 17.3 ha ha−1 (half of the total surface area of needles). By a process similar to that used for calculating LAI, the amount of woody tissues included in sugi foliage was evaluated to be about 10% of the stand foliage biomass.

Performance of some growth variables

European beech ( Fagus sylvatica L.), Norway spruce ( Picea abies L. Karst.) and Silver fir ( Abies alba Mill.) were exposed to low concentrations of ozone (O 3) and sulfur dioxide (SO 2), alone and combined, and simulated acid rain (pH 4·0) in sheltered open-top chambers in Hohenheim (Southwest Germany) for almost five years. The concentrations of O 3 and SO 2 used were related to annual ambient average found in southern West Germany. Two control chambers were ventilated with charcoal filtered air and rainfall was simulated at pH 4·0 and 5·0. Because of large dense plant growth in the chambers it was only possible to measure uncompleted growth of shoots in the upper canopy. Therefore, growth analysis was restricted to this area. The treatment with acidic precipitation decreased the annual shoot growth of beech and reduced leaf surface area of those trees. Exposure to SO 2, O 3 alone and in combination resulted in further reduction of shoot length and leaf surface area. Fumigation with SO 2 and O 3 + SO 2 caused insignificant decreases of shoot length, total dry weight and needle surface area of spruce. The lateral leader shoot growth of spruce exposed to O 3 was significantly reduced only in the last year of the experiment. Growth rates of the spruce exposed to charcoal filtered air and non-acidic precipitation were reduced more than those of beech and fir. Growth variables determined for fir reflected different rates of incremental change. Exposure to O 3 resulted in the largest dry matter production of all fir groups but those exposed to charcoal filtered air and non-acidic precipitation responded with the best lateral leader shoot growth, lowest specific leaf area (SLA) and leaf area ratio (LAR) respectively indicating best metabolic efficiency. At the conclusion of this study a classification of sensitibity was developed for the tree species.

A branch chamber system and techniques for simultaneous pollutant exposure experiments and gaseous flux determinations

We describe an experimental system and techniques for use in simultaneous pollutant exposure experiments and gaseous flux determinations. The system uses flexible Teflon bag-like chambers to enclose entire individual branches of young trees. Five gaseous fluxes (CO2, H2O, SO2, O3, and H2O2) are measured once per hour for each of two branches. Techniques for determining chamber surface loss corrections and methods of estimating needle surface area of conifers are described. A three-week continuous test was run in order to evaluate system performance. Inlet concentrations of the five gases were extremely stable, with uncertainties of ≤ 2.2% in all cases and day-to-night differences of < 4%. Comparison of two branch chambers, one with clean air and one with the added pollutant gases H2O2, SO2, and O3, showed that between-chamber differences were < 2% for the average inlet concentrations of H2O and CO2. Pollutant losses to chamber surfaces were significant but were generally smaller than losses to the branch itself. Chamber loss corrections were different for daytime and nighttime conditions and also evolved as the three-week experiment proceeded.

Surface areas, lengths and volumes of Picea abies (L.) Karst. needles: determination, biological variability and effect of environmental factors

A method for the rapid determination of the lengths and surface areas of very large samples of needles of Picea abies (L.) Karst. using a computer-aided image analysis system was developed. Two independent methods for measuring non-destructively the volumes of individual needles and of all needles attached to a twig were devised. The surface areas and lengths of about 38000 needles sampled from the three youngest needle age-classes (1986, 1985, 1984) of 48 trees approximately 130 years old at four sites in the Fichtelgebirge mountains (N. E. Bavaria, FRG) were measured. The frequency distributions of lengths and areas for each site and age-class are given. Variability of needle size was fairly large. Even though the sites differed in climate, soil, and air pollution levels no consistent effect of these factors on needle size could be detected. Needle lengths and surface areas did not correlate with either the total chlorophyll content of the needles or the degree of crown thinning. The needle surface area (in mm2) of fully developed P. abies needles can be estimated by the empirical equation surface area = 4.440 x needle length -24.8 (r = 0.937), and the needle volume (in mm3) by needle volume = 0.208 x projected needle area1.353 (r = 0.969).

A measuring device to quantify deposition of fogwater and ionic input by fog on small spruce trees

A measuring device is described that allows the monitoring of fogwater deposition on to small spruce trees. The mass of fogwater deposition ranged from 41.9 to 60.5 ml/m2 of needle surface area. Fogwater was collected, and ion concentrations in fogwater and calculated masses of deposited ions are presented.

Use of a video-imaging system for estimating leaf surface area of Pinussylvestris seedlings

A method is described for a rapid, nondestructive estimation of the surface area of the shoot system of intact pine seedlings. A video camera and image analyzer were used to quantify the area of a video image of pine seedling shoots. Surface area values were displayed in dimensionless units, referred to as silhouette area. Silhouette area was significantly correlated with several other methods of estimating needle surface area, including dry weight, calculation based on measurement of linear dimensions, volume displacement, and optical planimetry. Correspondence between dry weight, or surface area estimates based on dry weight, and silhouette area was relatively low (r2 &lt; 0.9) but statistically significant. The correlation between shoot area and silhouette area were improved (r2 &gt; 0.9) when shoot area was estimated from volume displacement or optical planimetry.

Photosynthesis of a scots pine shoot: Test of a shoot photosynthesis model in a direct radiation field

The photosynthetic light curves of eight Scots pine ( Pinus sylvestris L.) shoots, each with a different structure, were measured in a direct radiation field at different positions relative to the radiation beam. Using a model of shoot geometry, the irradiance distributions on the needle surface area of the same shoots were simulated in each position. Using measurements of shoot photosynthesis, the photosynthetic light curve for a needle surface area element (a small area on the needle surface) was estimated indirectly for each shoot. Shoot photosynthesis was then calculated from the estimated photosynthetic light response curve of a needle surface area element and the irradiance distribution on the surface area of needles. Calculated rates for shoot photosynthesis agreed well with the measured rates. The mean irradiance on the needle surface area was the major component causing variation in the light response of a shoot irradiated from different directions, but the shape of the irradiance distribution on the needle surface area had a considerably smaller effect.

Effects of Interfering Vegetation on Biomass, Fascicle Morphology and Leaf Area of Loblolly Pine Seedlings

Abstract Loblolly pine (Pinus taeda L.) seedlings growing with no interfering vegetation were consistently greater in diameter and biomass than those growing with only herbaceous vegetation. Seedling diameter and biomass were more responsive than height to reduction in interfering vegetation. During the first growing season in the field, pine growth appeared to be influenced more by the presence of herbaceous than woody vegetation. For a given seedling age, the proportion of biomass in branches increased as interfering vegetation decreased. Seedling age and the absence of interfering vegetation each increased the percentage of foliage biomass in four-needled fascicles, fascicle diameter, total length, sheath length, dry weight, and surface area and decreased specific leaf area. Four-needled fascicles from two-year-old seedlings, growing with or without herbaceous vegetation, tended to be greater in diameter, total length, sheath length, dry weight, and surface area and were approximately equal in density to three-needled fascicles. Leaf area (total needle surface area) was strongly related to groundline basal area and was quite responsive to changes in herbaceous vegetation. The strong relationship between stem diameter and leaf area at several levels of interference suggests that either measure might be used as an indicator of loblolly pine response to interference from other plants. Forest Sci. 32:1016-1031.

Photosynthesis of a scots pine shoot: simulation of the irradiance distribution and photosynthesis of a shoot in different radiation fields

Using a model of shoot geometry the distribution of irradiance at the needle surface area of a shoot in different radiation conditions is simulated and shoot photosynthesis calculated. It is shown that the distribution of irradiance is very sensitive to radiation field geometry, affecting the efficiency of the utilization of radiant energy in photosynthesis. As a result, the photosynthetic response of a shoot in natural conditions is, for instance, highly dependent on the proportions of direct and diffuse solar radiation, being higher the greater is the proportion of diffuse radiation.

A rapid technique for estimating total surface area of pine needles.

A rapid technique for estimating total surface area of pine needles.

The Estimation of the Leaf Area Index for a Mature Pinus radiata Stand

SYNOPSIS The present study is the follow-up of previous biomass studies in the Bosboukloof Catchment in the 10n-kershoek State Forest. Needle surface area was estimated from the circumference at 50% of the length from the base of the needle and needle length, with an adjustment for needle taper. An analysis of variance showed a statistical significant operator-bias which however was below 1%. Measurements of needle width, needle thickness and needle length indicated that a single principal component accounted for more than 99% of the total variance. The relationship between needle circumference and position along the needle revealed that a quadratic regression satisfactorily accounts for the two-directional taper of the Pinus radiata needles, but the hypothesis of a similar shape of the needles was rejected at α = 0,05. Due to taper, an adjustment factor of 8% was required to estimate the needle surface area from the estimate based on the assumption of a cylindrical shape. The estimated leaf area index wa...

Sensitivity of Pinusponderosa foliage to airborne phytotoxins: use in biomonitoring

Pinusponderosa Laws. foliage from a relatively nonpolluted area (SO2 ≤ 5.2 μg/m3, annual average) was compared with foliage from a more polluted area (75 μg/m3, annual maximum average) over a 6-year period. Total sulfur and fluoride concentrations, frequencies of basal needle injury and healthy needles, and percent needle surface area affected (chlorotic and necrotic) classified as tip necrosis, mottle, and total necrosis were substantially higher at the polluted site and were judged to be sensitive characteristics. Two years following study inception, the first 700 MW of a planned 2100-MW coal-fired electric generating facility began operating in the nonpolluted area. No consistent changes were noted in the foliar characteristics measured in the nonpolluted area since power-plant start-up, and it is concluded that the facility's emissions did not measurably impact the pine ecosystem during the early years of operation.

Ein Beitrag zur Bestimmung von Nadeloberflächen

Summary Among the various procedures for rapid determination of the total needle surface area of conifers (in this case two-year-old pines), the following methods proved the most suitable. By immersing the needles in acetone, the cuticle was removed, making the needles wettable. After dipping in either a 0.2 % Black Amido or a 4 % Blue Dextran solution and then vigorously shaking off the excess liquid, the needles were rinsed in 100 ml water. The absorbance of these solutions was then measured as a control value by a filter photometer at 578 nm against water. Because of its high molecular weight, Blue Dextran is more suitable than Black Amido. Use of Blue Dextran, however, is relatively expensive, especially for extensive sample testing, which makes Black Amido the better choice. Although Black Amido leaves pigment stains on the needles, the relative deviation between individual measurements taken repeatedly on the same plant speciment was under 10 %. For standardization purposes, the surface and volume of the needles were determines geometrically based on three microscopic cross sections. Because of the excellent relation between needle length and surface area, the total surface area of each plant was easily determined by regression analysis. A highly significant, nearly linear correlation (with a precision of 0.85***) exists between the transparency of the rinsed off needle pigment and the needle surface area of a plant. Thus, this method allows relatively swift and sufficiently precise determination of the surface area of conifer needles without previous standardization with respect to an exact reference size, as can be taken from the following table.

Needle microepiphytes in a Douglas fir canopy: biomass and distribution patterns

Distribution patterns and total cell-volume estimates for needle microepiphytes are presented for three strata in the canopy of a single old-growth Douglas fir tree. Microbial cell volume was estimated by photographing transverse sections of needles, tracing microbial profiles on Mylar film, cutting out the tracings, and determining the pooled trace weights from various zones of each needle section. Microbial cells are concentrated in the midrib groove and over the stomatal zones of individual needles. Microbial cell volume on the upper needle surfaces increases during the 1st year and declines in subsequent years. Cell volumes on the lower needle surfaces increase from the 1st to the 3rd year and decrease from the 3rd to the 4th year. An increase in microbial cell volume occurs on both upper and lower surfaces from year 7 to year 8. Total microbial cell volume in relation to available needle surface area is greatest in the lower canopy and decreases with increasing height in the canopy. The total volume of microbial cells on needles was estimated to be 1093 cm3 for the entire tree.

Spacial distribution of photosynthetic capacity and performance in a mountain spruce forest of Northern Germany

Biomass distribution and diurnal CO2 uptake under natural conditions were investigated on Picea abies in a mountainous climate (Solling, Northwest Germany). Spruce has a remarkable variability in leaf characteristics. Even on a single branch in the lower sun crown, needle dry weight and surface area change considerably from the branch base to the tip and accoring to exposure. Only about 18% of the total biomass of the tree was current year's growth, about 40% of the needles were 4 years and older reaching a maximal age of 12 years. The main growing zone was at the border of upper shade and lower sun crown and the main accumulation of dry weight was at a greater tree height than was observed for maximal growth of needle numbers or surface area. The annual, new growth shifted toward the upper sun crown. Maximal daily CO2 uptake was highest in the lower sun crown on days with variable cloud cover when temperatures were moderate and water vapor pressure deficits were low. Also the annual CO2 uptake was highest in the lower sun crown, where 4-year-old and older needles contributed about 35% to the annual CO2 uptake of the tree. Current year growth contributed about 15% of the total CO2 gain. The upper and lower sun crowns produce about 70% of the total carbon gain. The carbon balance of spruce and the distribution of the production process in relation to needle age and crown level are discussed.