Neat Phase Research Articles

Synthesis of isoprene from 1-butanol and from diethyl ether in the presence of 3d-metal oxides nano-clusters acting as catalysts

The conformational equilibria of 1-butanol (1-BuOH) and diethyl ether (DEE) molecules were investigated in gas and liquid phases. The geometry of the molecules of all stable isomers of 1-BuOH and DEE was fully optimised and the thermochemical quantities’ values (ΔH, ΔG and ΔS) were computed in the temperature range from close to 0 K to 1000 K at the Density Functional Theory (DFT) level. DEE shows two rotamers (namely, Tt and Tg), whereas five different rotamers were identified for 1-BuOH (namely, Tt, Tg, Gt, Gg and Gg’) with different stability, due to the presence of intramolecular interactions. Electrostatic properties of 1-BuOH, ethanol (EtOH), and DEE were also evaluated. Calculated vibration spectra of 1-BuOH and DEE were compared with the experimental FT-IR and Raman spectra recorded in neat phase and diluted in cyclohexane (CHX). The experimental vibrational spectra found the best match with the sum of calculated spectra using the Boltzmann coefficients based on the thermal stability of each conformer. The frequency shift observed for some peaks as a function of the concentration of 1-BuOH in CHX reveals the impact of hydrogen bonds between 1-BuOH molecules, in particular in the case of conformer Gg’. In contrast, very weak interactions among molecules of DEE were spectroscopically detected. The transformation reactions of {1-BuOH+EtOH} and {DEE+EtOH} mixtures at different temperatures were studied using the method of quantum mechanical calculations. The mechanism of isoprene formation from these mixtures was determined taking into account the chemisorption of 1-BuOH and DEE onto metal oxide nano-clusters M4O4 (M = Sc to Zn) and its effect on the vibrations of BuOH and DEE at the interface for M = Zn, Cu and Ti using Raman microscopic spectroscopy.

Thermal, morphological, and structural characterization of starch-based bio-polymers for melt spinnability

Abstract The demand for sustainable textiles has increased research on bio-based biopolymers. Fiber spinning from starch biopolymer and its blends was widely attempted using electro-spinning; however, it is less attempted using melt spinning which is an industrially feasible method. In this study, native tapioca starch is converted into thermoplastic starch (TPS), blended with polylactic acid (PLA), and is attempted for melt spinnability in its neat and blended form TPS/PLA (70/30) with the intention of checking the possibility of melt spinning. The results from characterization of the prepared biopolymers show that thermal analysis of neat TPS does not reveal clear thermal transitions, glass transition (T g), and melting (T m), in the second heating curve, rather it influenced crystallization behavior of PLA as seen from differential scanning calorimetry result and degradation temperature (T d) was found to be in the range of 296–352°C from thermogravimetric analysis showing that addition of PLA improved thermal stability of TPS. Morphology analysis with AFM images revealed the presence of granular starch in neat TPS and phase separation in TPS/PLA blends with finer phase distribution in the presence of additives. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy result shows the interaction between starch, glycerol, and PLA showing the effect of thermoplasticization of starch which brings rupture or weakening of the strong glycosidic bonds in between starch molecules and interaction between TPS and PLA as it can be seen from peak shift and peak intensity. The melt spinning trials show the possibility of melt spinning TPS-based biopolymers into fibers even with higher content of TPS as well as neat TPS giving an insight and motivation for more research engagement. The melt-spun fibers were found to have a diameter in the range of 160.0–117.0 μm. However, additional experiments and investigations are required to improve the mechanical and other properties of the fibers.

Anisotropy, segmental dynamics and polymorphism of crystalline biogenic carboxylic acids.

Carboxylic acids of the Krebs cycle possess invaluable biochemical significance. Still, there are severe gaps in the availability of thermodynamic and crystallographic data, as well as ambiguities prevailing in the literature on the thermodynamic characterization and polymorph ranking. Providing an unambiguous description of the structure, thermodynamics and polymorphism of their neat crystalline phases requires a complex multidisciplinary approach. This work presents results of an extensive investigation of the structural anisotropy of the thermal expansion and local dynamics within these crystals, obtained from a beneficial cooperation of NMR crystallography and ab initio calculations of non-covalent interactions. The observed structural anisotropy and spin-lattice relaxation times are traced to large spatial variations in the strength of molecular interactions in the crystal lattice, especially in the orientation of the hydrogen bonds. A completely resolved crystal structure for oxaloacetic acid is reported for the first time. Thanks to multi-instrumental calorimetric effort, this work clarifies phase behavior, determines third-law entropies of the crystals, and states definitive polymorph ranking for succinic and fumaric acids. These thermodynamic observations are then interpreted in terms of first-principles quasi-harmonic calculations of cohesive properties. A sophisticated model capturing electronic, thermal, and configurational-entropic effects on the crystal structure approaches captures the subtle Gibbs energy differences governing polymorph ranking for succinic and fumaric acids, representing another success story of computational chemistry.

Understanding liquid-liquid equilibria in binary mixtures of hydrocarbons with a thermally robust perarylphosphonium-based ionic liquid.

Binary mixtures of hydrocarbons and a thermally robust ionic liquid (IL) incorporating a perarylphosphonium-based cation are investigated experimentally and computationally. Experimentally, it is seen that excess toluene added to the IL forms two distinct liquid phases, an “ion-rich” phase of fixed composition and a phase that is nearly pure toluene. Conversely, n-heptane is observed to be essentially immiscible in the neat IL. Molecular dynamics simulations capture both of these behaviours. Furthermore, the simulated composition of the toluene-rich IL phase is within 10% of the experimentally determined composition. Additional simulations are performed on the binary mixtures of the IL and ten other small hydrocarbons having mixed aromatic/aliphatic character. It is found that hydrocarbons with a predominant aliphatic character are largely immiscible with the IL, while those with a predominant aromatic character readily mix with the IL. A detailed analysis of the structure and energetic changes that occur on mixing reveals the nature of the ion-rich phase. The simulations show a bicontinuous phase with hydrocarbon uptake akin to absorption and swelling by a porous absorbent. Aromatic hydrocarbons are driven into the neat IL via dispersion forces with the IL cations and, to a lesser extent, the IL anions. The ion–ion network expands to accommodate the hydrocarbons, yet maintains a core connective structure. At a certain loading, this network becomes stretched to its limit. The energetic penalty associated with breaking the core connective network outweighs the gain from new hydrocarbon–IL interactions, leaving additional hydrocarbons in the neat phase. The spatially alternating charge of the expanded IL network is shown to interact favourably with the stacked aromatic subphase, something not possible for aliphatic hydrocarbons.

Columnar Liquid Crystals from Star-Shaped Conjugated Mesogens as Nano-Reservoirs for Small Acceptors.

Shape-persistent conjugated mesogens with oligothiophene arms of different lengths have been synthesized. Such mesogens possess free intrinsic space between their conjugated arms. They form columnar liquid-crystalline phases, in which the void is filled by dense helical packing in the neat phase similar to an oligo(phenylene vinylene) derivative of equal size. The void can also be compensated by the inclusion of the small acceptor molecule 2,4,7-trinitrofluorenone. In solution, the acceptor interacts with the core as the largest π-surface, while in the solid material, it is incorporated between the arms and sandwiched by the star-shaped neighbours along the columnar assemblies. The TNF acceptors are not nanosegregated from the star-shaped donors, thus the liquid crystal structure converts to a nano-reservoir for TNF (endo-receptor). These host-guest arrangements are confirmed by comprehensive X-ray scattering experiments and solid-state NMR spectroscopy. This results in ordered columnar hexagonal phases at high temperatures, which change to helical columnar mesophases or to columnar soft crystals at room temperature.

A brief visit to the BeCl2/ZnCl2 system and the prediction of a new polymorph of ZnCl2

Abstract Reactions of zinc chloride with beryllium chloride in the molar ratios of 1:1 and 3:2 at T = 300°C in sealed ampoules lead to the formation of the two compounds Be1− x Zn x Cl2 (x = 0.563(2) and 0.489(3), respectively). Their composition and crystal structures were evidenced by single crystal X-ray structure analysis. Both compounds crystallize isotypic to β-BeCl2 in the tetragonal space group I41/acd, No. 142, tI96, with a = 10.7548(1), c = 19.4656(5) Å, V = 2251.50(7) Å3, Z = 32 at T = 100 K for the first and a = 10.7511(3), c = 19.2335(10) Å, V = 2223.1(2) Å3, Z = 32 at T = 100 K for the second compound. The positions of the Be atoms are mixed-occupied by Zn atoms. The compounds were additionally characterized by powder X-ray diffraction and infrared spectroscopy. Plots according to Vegard’s law allowed for extrapolation towards a neat ZnCl2 phase that would crystallize in the β-BeCl2 structure, which is the ZnI2 structure type. Quantum chemical calculations have confirmed that such a ZnCl2 modification would represent a true local minimum.

Multiple‐State Emissions from Neat, Single‐Component Molecular Solids: Suppression of Kasha's Rule

AbstractThree rigid and structurally simple heterocyclic stilbene derivatives, (E)‐3H,3′H‐[1,1′‐biisobenzofuranylidene]‐3,3′‐dione, (E)‐3‐(3‐oxobenzo[c] thiophen‐1(3H)‐ylidene)isobenzofuran‐1(3H)‐one, and (E)‐3H,3′H‐[1,1′‐bibenzo[c] thiophenylidene]‐3,3′‐dione, are found to fluoresce in their neat solid phases, from upper (S2) and lowest (S1) singlet excited states, even at room temperature in air. Photophysical studies, single‐crystal structures, and theoretical calculations indicate that large energy gaps between S2 and S1 states (T2 and T1 states) as well as an abundance of intra and intermolecular hydrogen bonds suppress internal conversions of the upper excited states in the solids and make possible the fluorescence from S2 excited states (phosphorescence from T2 excited states). These results, including unprecedented fluorescence quantum yields (2.3–9.6 %) from the S2 states in the neat solids, establish a unique molecular skeleton for achieving multi‐colored emissions from upper excited states by “suppressing” Kasha's rule.

A Solid-State Fluorescence Sensor for Nitroaromatics and Nitroanilines Based on a Conjugated Calix[4]arene Polymer.

A new conjugated polymer possessing calix[4]arene-oxacyclophane units wired-in-series by phenyleneethynylene linkers was synthesized by a Sonogashira-Hagihara cross-coupling method in high yield. The polymer was structurally characterized by FTIR and 1H/13C/HSQC NMR techniques, and its average Mn (38.5kDa) retrieved from GPC analysis. The polymer is highly emissive (ΦF = 0.55) and exhibits a longer-than-usual excited-state lifetime (1.80ns) for a phenyleneethynylene type polymer. Similar photophysical properties (absorption and fluorescence emission) were observed in solution and in solid-state. This stems from the presence of bulky calixarene moieties along the polymer chains which prevent interchain staking and the formation of ground-state aggregates and/or non-emissive exciplexes, both deleterious to solid-state materials envisioned for fluorescence sensing applications. Moreover, the intrinsic molecular recognition capabilities of its two rigid inner cavities (calixarene and cyclophane sub-units), allied with the high three-dimensionality of the macromolecule that creates additional interstitial voids around the molecular receptors, can boost its sensory responses towards specific analytes. A high sensitive response was observed in the detection of nitroaromatics and nitroanilines in neat vapour phases by casted films of the polymer. The largest sensitivities were obtained for 2,4-dinitrotoluene (a taggant for the explosive TNT; > 85% of fluorescence quenching upon 1min exposure) and ortho-nitroaniline (90% of emission reduction in 30s). The sensory responses attained in solid-state are discussed on the basis of the electron affinities of the analytes and their electrostatic interactions with polymer films. Graphical Abstract Sensing the threats! A high sensitive response was observed in the detection of explosives and noxious nitroanilines in neat vapour phases by thinfilms of a calixarene-based polymer.

Covalent modification of phosphatidylethanolamine by 4-hydroxy-2-nonenal increases sodium permeability across phospholipid bilayer membranes

Reactive aldehydes (RAs), such as 4-hydroxy-2-nonenal (HNE) and 4-oxo-2-nonenal (ONE), produced by cells under conditions of oxidative stress, were shown to react with phosphatidylethanolamine (PE) in biological and artificial membranes. They form RA-PE adducts, which affect the function of membrane proteins by modifying various biophysical properties of the membrane. The ratio of protein to lipid in biological membranes is different, but can reach 0.25 in the membranes of oligodendrocytes. However, the impact of RA-PE adducts on permeability (P) of the neat lipid phase and molecular mechanism of their action are poorly understood. In this study, we showed that HNE increased the membrane P for ions, and in particular for sodium. This effect depended on the presence of DOPE, and was not recorded for the more toxic compound, ONE. Molecular dynamics simulations suggested that HNE-PE and ONE-PE adducts anchored different positions in the lipid bilayer, and thus changed the membrane lipid area and bilayer thickness in different ways. Sodium permeability, calculated in the presence of double HNE-PE adducts, was increased by three to four orders of magnitude when compared to PNa in adduct – free membranes. A novel mechanism by which HNE alters permeability of the lipid membrane may explain the multiple toxic or regulative effects of HNE on the function of excitable cells, such as neurons, cardiomyocytes and neurosensory cells under conditions of oxidative stress.

Salt-induced Long-to-Short Range Orientational Transition in Water.

We report the long-range orientational organization of water using polarization-resolved second harmonic scattering operated in a right-angle configuration. A transition is observed between the neat water orientational organization involving an azimuthal molecular orientation distribution towards a radial molecular orientation distribution when salt is added. These two orientational phases are quantitatively described using a molecular model of the second harmonic scattering response. It is observed that the long-range correlation present in the neat water phase abruptly disappears and is replaced by a shorter range correlation centered around the ions as the salt concentration is increased.

Dielectric and thermodynamic study of camphor and borneol enantiomers and their binary systems

Phase behavior and dielectric relaxation of camphor and borneol enantiomers in neat phase and their binary mixtures have been studied employing dielectric spectroscopy (20 Hz–2 MHz), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), and X-ray diffraction techniques. Camphor and borneol form a solid solution in phase SI which is an orientationally disordered phase of fcc structure and gets supercooled during cooling. For solid solutions, two α- processes and a sub-Tg process are observed. The fm values of primary relaxation processes are deviating from Arrhenius behavior. The activation energy of sub-Tg process lies in the range of 11–18 kJ/mol and is of Johari-Goldstein type indicating the intermolecular nature. Sub- Tg process is perhaps the dominant process seen at higher temperatures studied by Smyth et al. (1963) and Davies et al. (1962).

Charge Transport in Pure and Mixed Phases in Organic Solar Cells

AbstractIn organic solar cells continuous donor and acceptor networks are considered necessary for charge extraction, whereas discontinuous neat phases and molecularly mixed donor–acceptor phases are generally regarded as detrimental. However, the impact of different levels of domain continuity, purity, and donor–acceptor mixing on charge transport remains only semiquantitatively described. Here, cosublimed donor–acceptor mixtures, where the distance between the donor sites is varied in a controlled manner from homogeneously diluted donor sites to a continuous donor network are studied. Using transient measurements, spanning from sub‐picoseconds to microseconds photogenerated charge motion is measured in complete photovoltaic devices, to show that even highly diluted donor sites (5.7%–10% molar) in a buckminsterfullerene matrix enable hole transport. Hopping between isolated donor sites can occur by long‐range hole tunneling through several buckminsterfullerene molecules, over distances of up to ≈4 nm. Hence, these results question the relevance of “pristine” phases and whether a continuous interpenetrating donor–acceptor network is the ideal morphology for charge transport.

Direct Measurement of the Angular Pair Correlation Coefficients in Molecular Liquids Using NMR. Benchmarking Force Fields for Atomistic Simulations

High-field deuterium NMR spectroscopy is used to characterize a number of molecular liquids and their mixtures in order to probe the directional part of the intermolecular interactions through the orientational ordering induced in the isotropic liquid phase by the spectrometer magnetic field. The systems studied include benzene, chloroform, hexafluorobenzene, and thiophene at various concentrations and in mixtures. Dilution with the magnetically isotropic tetramethylsilane provides quantification of ordering at "infinite magnetic dilution", that is, in the absence of magnetic intermolecular correlations, and thereby allows identification of the contribution of these correlations to the orientational ordering in neat phases and at various degrees of magnetic dilution. Such contributions are conveyed by angular pair correlation coefficients, which, in addition to being accessible to direct NMR measurement, are also possible to evaluate directly from molecular dynamics simulations. By using various force fields, simulations provide benchmark quantities for testing and possibly further improving the force field performance, particularly with respect to the directional components of the intermolecular interactions. The latter are critical for the simulation of self-assembly generally and particularly in biological systems.

The fate of electron-hole pairs in polymer:fullerene blends for organic photovoltaics.

There has been long-standing debate on how free charges are generated in donor:acceptor blends that are used in organic solar cells, and which are generally comprised of a complex phase morphology, where intermixed and neat phases of the donor and acceptor material co-exist. Here we resolve this question, basing our conclusions on Stark effect spectroscopy data obtained in the absence and presence of externally applied electric fields. Reconciling opposing views found in literature, we unambiguously demonstrate that the fate of photogenerated electron–hole pairs—whether they will dissociate to free charges or geminately recombine—is determined at ultrafast times, despite the fact that their actual spatial separation can be much slower. Our insights are important to further develop rational approaches towards material design and processing of organic solar cells, assisting to realize their purported promise as lead-free, third-generation energy technology that can reach efficiencies over 10%.

Liquid-Assisted Grinding to Prepare a Cocrystal of Adefovir Dipivoxil Thermodynamically Less Stable than Its Neat Phase

Liquid-assisted grinding was employed to generate a cocrystal of adefovir dipivoxil (AD) and glutaric acid (GLU), which had not been successfully obtained through solution crystallization. The cocrystal formation was confirmed with powder X-ray diffraction, and its thermal stability and release behavior were studied through differential scanning calorimetry and dissolution experiments, respectively. The AD/GLU cocrystal was less stable than neat AD phase and the previously reported AD cocrystals with other dicarboxylic acids, such as suberic acid and succinic acid. This suggests that the intermolecular interactions of the AD/GLU cocrystal are probably weaker than the other crystal phases. The release behavior of the AD/GLU was comparable with the cocrystal with suberic acid. The current study verifies the effectiveness of the liquid-assisted grinding for the preparation of the thermodynamically less stable cocrystal phase.

Synthesis, structural and conformational analysis, and IR spectra of ethyl 4-chloro-7-iodoquinoline-3-carboxylate

In this work, we report the synthesis of a novel quinoline derivative, ethyl 4-chloro-7-iodoquinoline-3-carboxylate (CIQC), and its structural, conformational and vibrational characterization. The compound was studied in its neat solid phases (crystalline and low-temperature amorphous phases) and as an isolated species in a cryogenic argon matrix (at ∼15 K). Infrared spectroscopy and single crystal X-ray diffraction were the chosen experimental techniques. The conformational space and the vibrational spectra of the isolated molecules of the compound were also investigated theoretically at the B3LYP/LANL2DZ+cc-pVDZ level of approximation.The CIQC molecule exists in four different conformers, with predicted populations of 42:25:17:16% at room temperature (rt). The rt equilibrium conformational mixture was successfully trapped in an argon matrix, at 15 K, and the vibrational signatures of the conformers were determined. Upon annealing of the matrix of the compound at higher temperatures (∼40 K), conversion of the higher energy forms into the most stable conformer was found to take place, in consonance with the low predicted barriers for conformational isomerization. Sublimation of the host matrix argon atoms (at ∼43 K) led to production of a low-temperature amorphous state of CIQC, containing the lowest but also the higher energy conformers. At T ∼233–243 K, the amorphous rearranged to the crystalline state, whose molecular unit corresponds to the most stable CIQC conformer, as shown both by infrared spectroscopy and single crystal X-ray diffraction.At room temperature CIQC crystallizes in the hexagonal P63/m space group, with a=b=17.7928(2) Å, and c=6.9830(1) Å. The molecules lie on a crystallographic mirror plane and are stacked in layers along the c-axis. The main packing motif consists of a group of three molecules, related by a three-fold rotation, joined together by weak C–H ⋯ O hydrogen bonds.

Novel equilibrium headspace gas chromatographic technique for the measurement of noncovalent association and partition of n-alkylbenzenes in water/n-dodecane and water/1-octanol systems at low phase ratio without phase separation

A novel equilibrium headspace gas chromatographic (eHSGC) method was developed to study the basis of liquid–liquid partitioning (LLP) as set of two reactions and the solute mass balance. The equations describe the system completely with minimum assumptions. The theory was tested for n-dodecane/water and 1-octanol/water systems with n-alkylbenzenes (benzene, B, toluene, T, ethtylbenzene, EB, n-propylbenzene, PB, and n-butylbenzene, BB) as solutes at infinite dilution (ca. 10−7 mf), without solute concentration, without calibration, and most importantly, without phase separation at low phase ratio (0.001). The only requirements are the accurate measurement of relative peak areas and the phase ratio. Three fundamental parameters- the critical phase ratio (cpr), monomer solute-organic solvent association constant (KSB), and monomer solute-organic pseudo-phase association constant (KSpB) were obtained experimentally. Other parameters such as the molar and mole fraction partition coefficients (KSW, Kx), and the intra-organic phase infinite dilution activity coefficients (γ∞s) of solutes were also calculated to characterize the LLP process. The noncovalent association constants, KSW and KSpB are reported here for the first time. The results show that the cpr is indicative of the solubility of lipophilic 1-octanol while significantly different for completely nonpolar n-dodecane due to strong solute-organic solvent (SB) association i.e., larger KSB. The partition coefficients (KSW and Kx) are shown to be a specific case of KSpB equilibrium. These values are in fair agreement with literature values. The existence of a water rich pseudo-phase in a water continuous mixed immiscible solvent is reflected in the relative values of ΔG°CH2= −(674 to 988) J/mol CH2 compared to the literature ΔG°CH2= −(1674 to 3349) J/mol CH2 for LLP into neat phases. The mutual influence of phases is clearly demonstrated by similarity of γ∞s (B-BB=0.25–8.38) for 1-octanol and γ∞s (B-BB=0.55–12) for n-dodecane.

Vibrational analysis of neat liquid tert-butylmethylether

Among aliphatic ethers, the most known is tert-butylmethylether (TBME), mainly for its significance in the fuel industry. It was the subject of numerous investigations, including industrial, environmental and medical studies. The literature however is lacking of any insightful infrared studies of TBME in neat liquid phase. In this work we determined the optical constants of TBME, from transmission studies in the IR range (11,700–560cm−1). The use of quantitative thin film recording techniques was essential due to the high absorption of neat liquids in the MIR range. Low temperature matrix investigation was also carried out, to elucidate details of the vibrational spectrum of TBME. The experiment was supported by an anharmonic vibrational analysis including the simulation of experimental spectrum, based on the B2PLYP/N07D level of theory. The chosen method delivered good results with a relatively modest computational cost.

Donor–spacer–acceptor monodisperse conjugated co-oligomers for efficient single-molecule photovoltaic cells based on non-fullerene acceptors

The current challenges for efficient bulk heterojunction (BHJ) organic photovoltaics (OPVs) based on organic/polymeric (non-fullerene) acceptors involve difficult control of neat phase separation in the nanoscale, severe geminate charge recombination, etc. Herein, a new molecular design concept, that is to construct donor–spacer–acceptor (D–S–A) co-oligomers with self-assembly properties, is proposed in order to realize ideal film morphology and manipulate the exciton dissociation and geminate charge recombination processes simultaneously. Three D–S–A co-oligomers, i.e.F5T8P-C2, F5T8P-C4 and F5T8P-C6 with oligo(fluorene-alt-bithiophene), perylene diimide (PDI) and alkyl as D-, A- and S-segments, respectively, were synthesized. All three D–S–A co-oligomers can form D–A alternating lamellar nanostructures with periods of ∼15 nm, an ideal nanostructure for BHJ OPVs. Compared to D–A co-oligomer F5T8-epP in which the D- and A-segments are directly connected without the alkyl spacer, the D–S–A co-oligomers not only show higher electron mobilities due to closer packing of PDI moieties, but also exhibit longer lifetimes of the charge-transfer states that can potentially restrain the geminate charge recombination and improve the charge generation efficiency. Accordingly, the single-molecule photovoltaic cells based on the D–S–A co-oligomers exhibit an improved fill factor of 0.47 and a high open-circuit voltage of 1.04 V. In particular, an external quantum efficiency of ∼65%, which is the highest for BHJ OPVs based on non-fullerene acceptor materials, has been demonstrated. By further extending the absorption onset of D–S–A co-oligomers to ∼600 nm, a single-molecule photovoltaic device with a power conversion efficiency of 2.70% has been fabricated. These results prove that high-efficiency BHJ OPVs based on non-fullerene acceptors are achievable if both the film morphology of the D–A blend and D–A interfaces are suitably manipulated.

ChemInform Abstract: Nonvolatile Functional Molecular Liquids

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