NE Poland Research Articles

Unexpected differences in butterfly diversity between two peat bogs in the same area

Abstract Peat bogs are listed among the most threatened habitats in central Europe, a situation that is reflected by, for example, the conservational status of stenotopic butterflies. Even so, this group remains relatively little studied and most of the available data are limited to qualitative records. The present study enabled us to gain insight into the butterfly fauna of the two largest peat bogs in the Knyszyn Forest (NE Poland), i.e. Bagno Moskal and the one in the Jesionowe Góry nature reserve. The sites, only ca 10 km apart, are characterized by similar vegetation (mainly the Ledo-Sphagnetum association). The study was carried out in 2013-2015 using the transect method, i.e. regular counts along fixed routes. A total of 37 species, including three tyrphobionts (Colias palaeno, Plebejus optilete and Boloria eunomia) and two tyrphophiles (Callophrys rubi and Boloria euphrosyne), were recorded. The greatest and unexpected differences between the sites were related to the complete absence of P. optilete at Bagno Moskal, the significantly higher abundance of B. eunomia at Jesionowe Góry and the greater abundance of B. euphrosyne at Bagno Moskal. In addition, C. palaeno was observed sporadically and only at Bagno Moskal. There was some heterogeneity in the distribution and density of particular species, however. Ledum palustre was found to be the most important nectar plant, its flowers also being frequently visited by tyrphoneutrals. The present study shows that isolated island-like habitats (e.g. peat bogs) may possess specific features and be subject to specific independent changes. The results provide a good basis for further research into the habitat preferences of tyrphophilous and tyrphobiontic butterflies, which is important in the context of their conservation.

THE DIGITAL VON FAHRENHEID PYRAMID

Abstract. 3D Scanners Lab from Digital Humanities Laboratory at the University of Warsaw initiated the scientific project, the purpose of which was to call attention to systematically penetrated and devastated pyramid-shaped tomb from the XVIII/XIX century, of family von Fahrenheid in Rapa in Banie Mazurskie commune (NE Poland). By conducting a series of non-invasive studies, such as 3D inventory using terrestrial laser scanning (TLS), thermal imaging, georadar measurements (around and inside the tomb) and anthropological research of mummified remains as well - the complete dataset was collected. Through the integration of terrestrial (TLS) and airborne laser scanning (ALS) authors managed to analyse the surroundings of Fahrenheid pyriamid and influence of some objects (like trees) on the condition and visibility of the Pyramids in the landscape.

Factors determining presence of passerines breeding within White Stork Ciconia ciconia nests

Nests of White Stork Ciconia ciconia are commonly used by various passerines as nesting sites. In this study, we investigated factors determining presence and number of pairs of species breeding within White Stork nests in an extensive farmland in NE Poland. In 133 (57%) out of 233 White Stork nests, we found at least one breeding pair of passerine bird. These were from three species: House Sparrows Passer domesticus (68% of 133 nests with co-breeding), Tree Sparrows Passer montanus (65%), and Starlings Sturnus vulgaris (30%). The probability of breeding passerines within White Stork nests increased with increasing nest thickness, and was significantly higher in currently occupied nests. Sparrows were more likely to breed in White Stork nests located on electricity poles, situated closer to settlements and surrounded mainly by arable fields where meadows were not prevalent. In this paper, we show that White Stork nests are favorable nesting sites for passerines, as they are well insulated and provide an anti-predatory shield.

Ecosystem potentials to provide services in the view of direct users

The study aimed to determine how direct users of local ecosystems perceive the potentials of those ecosystems to provide services, and how their assessments are influenced by different factors (i.e. socio-demographic characteristics, the actual use of services and proximity to particular ecosystems). To elicit social values we carried out a door-to-door questionnaire survey among residents and visitors (N=251) staying in Wigry National Park and its vicinity (the Suwałki Lakeland of NE Poland), a renowned area of high natural value. Respondents were asked to detail the frequency of use made of 45 different provisioning and cultural services, and then to evaluate 7 local ecosystem types as regards their capacity to supply 11 groups of services. Direct users of ecosystems were shown to possess a capacity to differentiate local ecosystems in terms of their potentials to provide services. Better education, multifaceted interaction with nature and frequent use of natural resources are all found to contribute to better understanding and more accurate assessments of potential. Between-group hierarchy variations also show clearly how personal experience influences the assessment of ecosystem potentials. The perception of cultural and regulating potential in particular appeared to be affected greatly by the frequency of use of cultural services.

Ecological conditions of the vegetation and vascular plant species distribution in the selected forest seepage spring area (NE Poland) based on a fine-scale assessment

The existence and functioning of spring ecosystems is determined by groundwater seepage or outflow. The water seeping through the ground surface triggers off the headward and deep erosion processes, which results in the channelled shape of the lowland rheocrenic springs. Spring areas significantly contribute to the floristic, phytocoenotic and landscape diversity. The literature on the vegetation cover of lowland spring ecosystems is scarce. Most papers refer to the identification of their flora and plant communities, less frequently – the relationships between habitat conditions and vegetation. The studies indicate that pH and moisture content are the main factors determining the composition and species diversity of ecosystems supplied by groundwater. My study presents a detailed geobotanical analysis performed on one forested spring area (together with an adjacent area) of 0.378 ha, which was divided into 945 study plots – squares with an area of 4 m2. Three zones were distinguished in the studied spring area: the bottom with a specific mosaic pattern caused by the presence of streams, water seepage sites and mineral islands, the steep slope and the surrounding area. A detailed map of habitats and the actual vegetation was prepared. A list of vascular plant species was compiled for each study plot, based on which maps with the distribution of mean Ellenberg’s indicator values were created. Statistically significant differences in the variance of Ellenberg’s indicator values between the distinguished zones were demonstrated (ANOVA), and the correlations between the ecological indicators within a given zone were calculated. CCA analysis of plant communities and the distinguished zones revealed that the occurrence of e.g. Carici remotae-Fraxinetum and non-forest plant communities of wet and moist habitats is associated with the bottom of the niche characterised by a high value of Ellenberg’s moisture indicator F. Whereas the Acer platanoides-Tilia cordata community and the Tilio-Carpinetum corydaletosum association develop on the slope with high values of the temperature indicator T. Furthermore, the CCA analysis performed on the plant species and the distinguished zones confirmed the above results. It has been shown that the species composition and the distribution of plant species and plant communities in the study area are mainly determined by soil moisture content, but also by light and temperature.

Was there an abrupt cold climatic event in the middle Eemian? Pollen record from a palaeolake at the Hieronimowo site, NE Poland

Seventy samples of lacustrine sediments from a palaeolake at the Hieronimowo site, NE Poland were investigated by pollen analysis method. The obtained results indicate that the examined sequence spans the whole Eemian Interglacial (MIS 5e), the beginning of the Early Vistulian (Weichselian; MIS 5d) and some undefined period of the Plenivistulian (Middle Weichselian; MIS 2-4). The specific feature of the studied profile is the great thickness of deposits representing the hornbeam phase of the Eemian Interglacial (E5 R PAZ), which was the younger part of the climatic optimum of this interglacial, and the very well developed pollen record of this phase, that is absent in other profiles in NE Poland. Due to this, our study allowed, for the first time in NE Poland, the detailed reconstruction of changes in the vegetation and in the mean January and July temperature during the middle part of the Eemian Interglacial. This reconstruction unequivocally rules out the existence of an abrupt short-lasting cold event at that time. Only a gradual slight increase in temperature was apparent during the older part of the hornbeam phase (to >21 °C for July, and to >0 °C for January) and gradual decrease during its younger part (to >17 °C for July, and to > -5 °C and <-2 °C for January). So during the warmest part of the hornbeam phase, reconstructed temperatures for July were similar as in older part of the Eemian optimum (hazel phase, E4 R PAZ), however they were approximately 2 °C higher for January.

Distribution and potential risk assessment of heavy metals and arsenic in sediments of a dam reservoir: A case study of the Łoje Retention Reservoir, NE Poland

Distribution and potential risk assessment of heavy metals and arsenic in sediments of a dam reservoir: A case study of the Łoje Retention Reservoir, NE Poland

Environmental changes related to the 8.2-ka event and other climate fluctuations during the middle Holocene: Evidence from two dystrophic lakes in NE Poland

Multi-proxy palaeoecological data (pollen, diatom, Cladocera) about the environment during the middle-Holocene from Suchar II and Suchar Wielki, dystrophic lakes, in NE Poland are presented. Fluctuations in the pollen concentration, indicative of changes in pollen productivity and shifts in woodland composition, document the considerable instability of the climate in NE Poland between 9200 and 5750 cal. yr BP. The recognised colder events were dated to ca. 9050–8950, 8700–7800, 7600–7250, 7100–6600 and 6050–5900 cal. yr BP. All these coolings are expressed as decreases in the pollen concentration of thermophilous taxa such as Corylus avellana, Ulmus, Quercus, Tilia cordata t. and Fraxinus exelsior. The most pronounced was the second of these cold climatic anomalies, which lasted about nine centuries and can be equated with the 8.2-ka event. Significant cooling at that time is confirmed by the appearance of cold-water species of cladocerans and diatoms.

Monitoring performance using synthetic data for induced microseismicity by hydrofracking at the Wysin site (Poland)

AbstractIdeally, the performance of a dedicated seismic monitoring installation should be assessed prior to the observation of target seismicity. This work is focused on a hydrofracking experiment monitored at Wysin, NE Poland. A microseismic synthetic catalogue is generated to assess the monitoring performance during the pre-operational phase, where seismic information only concerns the noise conditions and the potential background seismicity. Full waveform, accounting for the expected spatial, magnitude and focal mechanism distributions and a realistic local crustal model, are combined with real noise recording to produce either event based or continuous synthetic waveforms. The network detection performance is assessed in terms of the magnitude of completeness (Mc) through two different techniques. First, we use an amplitude threshold, taking into the ratio among the maximal amplitude of synthetic waveforms and station-dependent noise levels, for different values of signal-to-noise ratio. The detection probability at each station is estimated for the whole data set and extrapolated to a broader range of magnitude and distances. We estimate an Mc of about 0.55, when considering the distributed network, and can further decrease Mc to 0.45 using arrays techniques. The second approach, taking advantage on an automatic, coherence-based detection algorithm, can lower Mc to ∼ 0.1, at the cost of an increase of false detections. Mc experiences significant changes during day hours, in consequence of strongly varying noise conditions. Moreover, due to the radiation patterns and network geometry, double-couple like sources are better detected than tensile cracks, which may be induced during fracking.

Breeding system variability, pollination biology, and reproductive success of rare Polemonium caeruleum L. in NE Poland

&lt;em&gt;Polemonium caeruleum&lt;/em&gt; (Polemoniaceae) represents a very interesting system of compatibility transition. Studies of its biological and ecological properties in the context of the breeding system of various populations may help to understand the evolutionary mechanism of this process. We investigated some aspects of the breeding system, diversity and foraging behavior of the visitors, and relationship between population properties and fruit set in three populations from NE Poland. We found distinct compatibility systems in two studied populations and showed that if a population is self-compatible (SC), selfing is mediated by insects via geitonogamous pollen transfer. Despite the population properties (compatibility, visitor diversity and activity, population size, density, or floral display), &lt;em&gt;P. caeruleum&lt;/em&gt; is not pollen limited and pollinators are highly important as a key factor determining the high reproductive success. Visitor assemblages (including key pollinators, bumblebees, and honey bees) and their foraging behavior on inflorescences vary between the populations, which may influence differences in the breeding system. The self-incompatible population was visited by a more diverse group of insects from Hymenoptera, Diptera, Lepidoptera, Heteroptera, and Coeloptera, which may favor effective cross-pollen transfer, whereas the SC population was pollinated mainly by &lt;em&gt;Apis mellifera&lt;/em&gt;, which may promote mixed-mating. Studies on a wider range of &lt;em&gt;P. caeruleum&lt;/em&gt; populations are needed to determine selective factors responsible for compatibility transition.

Pollinator limitation affects low reproductive success in populations of nectarless orchid in the Biebrza National Park

The deficiency of pollinators is indicated as the main factor limiting fruit set in orchids. Nectariferous species are more successful in setting fruits than nectarless species. In the present study, we tested whether pollinator limitation lowers reproductive success in populations of &lt;em&gt;Cypripedium calceolus&lt;/em&gt; on environmental islands in the Biebrza National Park, NE Poland. Moreover, we analyzed how population size and structure affect pollination success. Our observations and results of experiments document the low level of fruiting in populations of nectarless &lt;em&gt;C. calceolus&lt;/em&gt; (9.2% on average) and strong pollen limitation. Generally, we noted a positive relationship between pollination success and all parameters of population size (measured by both occupied area and number of clumps or shoots) and parameters measuring floral display (number of flowers in population, number of flowers in clumps, spatial structure of flowering shoots). We suggest that information about factors influencing the reproductive success of this endangered species may be useful for planning appropriate conservation actions.

Hyperspectral imaging of sedimentary bacterial pigments: a 1700-year history of meromixis from varved Lake Jaczno, northeast Poland

Hypoxia in freshwater systems is currently spreading globally and putting water quality, biodiversity and other ecosystem services at risk. Such adverse effects are of particular concern in permanently stratified meromictic lakes. Yet little is known about when and how meromixis and hypoxia became established (or vanished) prior to anthropogenic impacts, or how human activities such as deforestation, erosion and nutrient cycling affected the mixing regimes of lakes. We used calibrated hyperspectral imaging (HSI) data in the visible and near infrared range from a fresh, varved sediment core taken in Lake Jaczno, NE Poland, to map sedimentary pigments at very high resolution (sub-varve scale) over the past 1700 years. HSI-inferred bacteriopheophytin a (bphe a, produced by anoxygenic phototrophic bacteria) serves as a proxy for meromixis, whereas HSI-inferred green pigments (chlorophyll a and diagenetic products) can be used as estimators of aquatic productivity. Meromixis was established and vanished long before significant human disturbance in the catchment was observed in the late eleventh century AD. Under pre-anthropogenic conditions, however, meromixis was interrupted frequently, and the lake mixing regime flickered between dimixis and meromixis. During two periods with intense deforestation and soil erosion in the catchment, characterised by sedimentary facies rich in clay and charcoal (AD 1070–1255 and AD 1670–1710), the lake was mostly dimictic and better oxygenated than in periods with relative stability and a presumably closed forest around the lake, i.e. without human disturbances. After ca. AD 1960, meromixis became established quasi-permanently as a result of eutrophication. The persistent meromixis of the last ~60 years is unusual with respect to the record of the last 1700 years.

The impact of postglacial palaeoenvironmental changes on the properties of sediments in the kettle hole at the site of Jurki (NE Poland)

This research is focused on a small kettle hole located within the Morąg moraines (Ilawa Lake District, NE Poland). The study objective was to determine the impact of palaeoenvironmental changes in sedimentation and properties of sediments filling the bottom of the kettle hole. Sedimentological, geochemical, and palaeobotanical studies enabled us to distinguish several development phases of the kettle hole, and cluster analysis performed on physicochemical data yielded seven local geochemical zones (Ju I/I to Ju I/VII ). The beginning of biogenic sedimentation in the conditions of a small water body, functioning in the Late Glacial period (4.20–4.10 m), was determined on the basis of palaeobotanical research. Sediments deposited in the lake during its further evolution were rich in microelements such as Ca, Na, Mg, and K, and to a smaller extent – Fe and Mn (Ju I/I–III local geochemical zones). The Late Glacial lacustrine period ended with the accumulation of very silty, pollen-free gyttja, with a stratigraphic hiatus (Ju I/IV , 3.40–3.20 m). The sediments were enriched with SiO2ter, which indicates an increased rate of slope erosion, and concretions of Fe-Mn occurring below this layer (Ju III ) provide evidence for lowering of the water level and even desiccation. In the Holocene, the lacustrine period ended with the accumulation of coarse detrital gyttja (3.20–2.60 m). Palaeobotanical data indicate that the next group of sediments were deposited in the Late Subboreal and Subatlantic periods (2.60–0.0 cm, Ju I/V–VII ; sedge peat). Their properties were varied and related to hydrologic conditions, limited denudation, and vegetation succession. There was also a significant change in the trophic conditions of the water and consequently in the sediments of the kettle hole, which changed during the lacustrine period from basic to acid, and strongly acid in the surface layer. This reaction may be related to a change in the water regime as well as to human impact in the environment, which led to the colonization of the peat bog by Sphagnum moss.

Post-Saalian transformation of dry valleys in eastern Europe: An example from NE Poland

The studies were conducted in a dry valley in NE Poland. They were aimed at determining the origin of this structure and tracing the processes that have shaped the dry valley in a time span of about 130 ka. The research included detailed geological mapping, including piercing of a number of boreholes and electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) surveys. The obtained material was pollen analysed, OSL dated, and the grain size distribution and the morphoscopy of sand quartz grains were investigated; additionally the organic matter (OM) content was determined. Based on the obtained results it was concluded that the structure currently occupied by sediments of the dry valley was formed during the Warta Stadial of the Odranian Glaciation (Saalian; MIS 6) as a glacial tunnel valley. Small, probably isolated depressions functioned in the dry valley bottom after the ice sheet retreat. The sediments record a full succession of climate oscillations from the Eemian Interglacial (MIS 5e) (pollen zones E1 to E7) through the Early Vistulian (MIS 5a-5d) to MIS 4. In the Early Vistulian, the depressions functioned as lakes, or got shallower and were replaced by peat-bogs, depending on the climate conditions. During MIS 4, the bottom of the dry valley was subjected to erosion as a result of concentrated water flow. This caused draining of the existing depressions and their incorporation within the flow. Probably during MIS 3, solifluction was activated on the slopes of the dry valley. During LGM, permafrost aggradation occurred in the study area, recorded by two generations of epigenetic sand wedges and development of aeolian processes. In contrast to analogous processes within the European Sand Belt, the latter processes acted for a short time and only locally. The final record are Holocene soils. It seems that the analysed valley is a good example of palaeoenvironmental conditions in Eastern Europe.

The twinflower in the Augustów Forest: occurrence, condition and threats

AbstractThe twinflowerLinnaea borealisL. is a rare, boreal plant species that grows in coniferous forests and is partly protected in Poland. We studied its distribution and the condition in the Augustów Forest (NE Poland) describing 22 twinflower patches in total. The following features were assessed: (1) patch area, (2) distance between individual twinflowers, (3) patch density, (4) intensity of flowering, (5) fruiting, (6) main accompanying plant species, (7) plant community structure, (8) species composition and age of the forest stands, (9) canopy cover of the forest stands, (10) existing and potential threats. In the northern part of the forest where suitable pine sites dominated, twinflowers were distributed irregularly and unevenly. Twinflowers in the Augustów Forest occur in relatively big areas with individual patches covering from 100 m2to 3000 m2, but most commonly 500–1000 m2. The mean distance to the nearest neighbouring twinflower was 1600 m (range from 250 m to 6035 m). This pattern of distribution and separating distance does allow for sexual reproduction within the studied forest stand and blooming was confirmed in 21 out of 22 patches. In four locations, intensive blooming with &gt;50 flowers shoot/m2was observed. We did not observe a dependency of the flowering intensity on patch size.Despite the intensive and frequent flowering, as well as the presence of fruits, which were found in 15 patches, the twinflower reproduces mainly vegetatively. Twinflowers grew in 34–166 years-old pine-spruce stands with moderate canopy cover, but there was no relationship between the age of forest stands and the size of a flower patch. Plant species, which commonly occurred with twinflowers were:Vaccinium myrtillus,Calamagrostis arundinacea,Goodyera repens,Rubus saxatilis, Fragaria vesca, Pleurosium schreberi.Twinflower communities are threatened by invasive species in the forest understory in two locations only, while in the other locations no active protection is needed and the plants should rather be protected and monitored through multifunctional forest management. We emphasise the importance of the Augustów Forest for the twinflower in Poland, because about 10% of the Polish population grows in this forest complex.

Specific Vicariance of Two Primeval Lowland Forest Lichen Indicators

To date, the lichens Chrysothrix candelaris and Varicellaria hemisphaerica have been classified as accurate primeval lowland forest indicators. Both inhabit particularly valuable remnants of oak-hornbeam forests in Europe, but tend toward a specific kind of vicariance on a local scale. The present study was undertaken to determine habitat factors responsible for this phenomenon and verify the indicative and conservation value of these lichens. The main spatial and climatic parameters that, along with forest structure, potentially affect their distribution patterns and abundance were analysed in four complexes with typical oak-hornbeam stands in NE Poland. Fifty plots of 400 m2 each were chosen for detailed examination of stand structure and epiphytic lichens directly associated with the indicators. The study showed that the localities of the two species barely overlap within the same forest community in a relatively small geographical area. The occurrence of Chrysothrix candelaris depends basically only on microhabitat space provided by old oaks and its role as an indicator of the ecological continuity of habitat is limited. Varicellaria hemisphaerica is not tree specific but a sufficiently high moisture of habitat is essential for the species and it requires forests with high proportion of deciduous trees in a wide landscape scale. Local landscape-level habitat continuity is more important for this species than the current age of forest stand. Regardless of the indicative value, localities of both lichens within oak-hornbeam forests deserve the special protection status since they form unique assemblages of exclusive epiphytes, including those with high conservation value.

The revision of specimens of the Cladonia pyxidata-chlorophaea group (lichenized Ascomycota) from northeastern Poland deposited in the herbarium collections of University in Bialystok

In northeastern Poland, the chemical variation of the &lt;em&gt;Cladonia chlorophaea-pyxidata&lt;/em&gt; group was much neglected, as TLC has not been used in delimitation of species differing in the chemistry. As a great part of herbal material of University in Bialystok from NE Poland was misidentified, I found my studies to be necessary. Based on the collection of 123 specimens deposited in Herbarium of University in Bialystok, nine species of the &lt;em&gt;C. pyxidata-chlorophaea&lt;/em&gt; group are reported from NE Poland. The morphology, secondary chemistry, and ecology of examined lichens are presented and the list of localities is provided. The results revealed that &lt;em&gt;C. fimbriata&lt;/em&gt; is the most common species in the northeastern Poland, comprising around 33% of the studied specimens. &lt;em&gt;Cladonia conista&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;C. cryptochlorophaea&lt;/em&gt;, and &lt;em&gt;C. merochlorophaea&lt;/em&gt; are known only from very few locations. This study shed light on the role of the lichens substances to diagnosis of the species of &lt;em&gt;C. pyxidata-chlorophaea&lt;/em&gt; group.

Postglacial morpholineaments as an indicator of ice sheet dynamics during the Saale Glaciation in the Białystok Plateau and Sokółka Hills (NE Poland)

The palaeogeographical reconstruction of the deglaciation process in NE Poland during the Odranian Glaciation Wartanian Stadial (Saale MIS 6) is based mainly on the analysis of glacial morpholineaments, performed using the GIS programs that provide us with better understanding of the glacial landscape evolution, spatial reconstruction of glacial processes, and postglacial landscape development. Analysis of postglacial morpholineaments was carried out based on the Digital Elevation Model (DEM) as well as geological, geomorphological and topographic maps. It resulted in the delimitation of visible linear postglacial landforms, their identification and classification, and the determination of their genetic and chronological relations. Directions of the lineaments were determined through quantitative analysis. Qualitative analysis was applied to determine the spatial and temporal sequence of events, directions of ice movement and its range. Two glacial lobes, Biebrza and Neman, existed in the north-western part of the Bialystok Plateau and Sokolka Hills during the last glacial advance. The lobed nature of the ice sheet can be confirmed by field data collected from, e.g., sites in Knyszewicze, and by topographic analysis of Quaternary sediments, combined with their thickness and genesis. The obtained reconstruction of the last glacial advance and retreat in the study area can be used in further regional discussions on the character and dynamics of the last glaciation in this region.

Managing for naturalness alone is not an effective way to preserve all the valuable natural features of the Białowieża Forest – a reply to Jaroszewicz et al.

AbstractCurrently, Brzeziecki et al. 2016 (Journal of Vegetation Science 27: 460–467.) are using data from permanent study plots established in 1936 in Białowieża National Park (NE Poland) to develop theoretical equilibrium tree size distributions and to then compare modelled and actual distributions with a view to assessing the population dynamics of the species involved. As part of their discussion, the authors address the question of possible consequences for the overall diversity of forest ecosystems under strict protection if long‐term trends relating to tree population densities and size structures are maintained. In the overall context of the above, the goal of the present paper is to respond to Jaroszewicz et al. (Journal of Vegetation Science 28: 218–222.) who suggest that the paper of Brzeziecki et al. (2016) is not representative for the whole Białowieża National Park, and that – in this connection – strict protection should not be seen as a cause for concern. In this paper, we show that the data analysed by Brzeziecki et al. (2016) adequately characterize conditions in the wider Park. We also point out that the thorough scientific understanding of the long‐term dynamics of woodland communities under strict protection should indeed be taken into account as efforts are made to arrive at an effective conservation strategy capable of ensuring that the uniquely valuable features of the Białowieża Forest are retained.

Mapping ecosystem services – a new approach in regional scale

Identifying the potential of ecosystems to provide ecosystem services (ES) is largely dependent on the detail and completeness of the base ecosystem map. The existing guidelines for the construction of this type of map include only a few basic types of ecosystems that work only at a national or international scale and are insufficient to identify the full potential of ecosystem services at local or regional scales. The aim of the study was to develop a comprehensive map of ecosystem types for mapping ecosystem services at a local and regional scale in three selected communes located within young glacial landscape (NE Poland). As a result, a detailed map of ecosystems has been constructed containing 42 ecosystem types including age and habitat categories. This original map is the first detailed cartographic work that can be successfully used to determine the potential for ecosystem services to be provided by areas analysed in large scales. The proposed approach has a universal character and can be also applied to any area analysed at similar spatial scales.