NCAA Student-athletes Research Articles

Career Maturity of Division III Athletes

NCAA student-athletes often become engulfed in their athletic role. While athletic role engulfment positively correlates to salient athletic identity, Division III student-athletes tend to identify with a diverse role set. Extant research has found that the prevalence of salient athletic identity among Division I student- athletes poses as a structural limitation to educational attainment and professional development. Given the unique philosophy of Division III athletics, such athletic identity formation is mitigated. Accordingly, the present study sought to examine demographic and psychographic factors of Division III student-athletes in relation to career maturity. Division III targeted populations that this information can greatly assist are university administration and intercollegiate athletic staff, including athletic directors and student-athlete support areas. Analysis of responses from a representative sample of more than 300 student-athletes (n = 301) indicates that psychometric factors are better indicators of career maturity than demographic factors. Given the emphasis on holistic athletic development in Division III and the corresponding mitigation of salient athletic identity formation, such findings are indicative of the importance of holistic athlete development on the career maturity of student-athletes.

“There’s no good, it’s just satisfactory”: perfectionism, performance, and perfectionistic reactivity in NCAA student-athletes

ABSTRACT Perfectionistic reactivity is a characteristic style of responding to adversity that elicits a bio-psychosocial response. Those with elevated levels of perfectionistic tendencies are thought to react disproportionately in the face of successes or failures. The present two-study paper was designed to understand the role of perfectionism in predicting season-long performance in collegiate golf while also gaining insight into NCAA student-athletes’ lived experiences of perfectionism and reactivity. In Study 1, self-report measures of perfectionism were collected from 46 NCAA golf student-athletes. Tournament scores were then recorded over the NCAA’s 12-week competitive season. Data were examined using a two-level hierarchical linear model to test the moderating effect of perfectionism on student-athlete hole-over-hole performance across an entire season. In Study 2, semi-structured interviews were conducted with six student-athletes from the Study 1 sample who had self-reported high levels of perfectionistic strivings and concerns. Data were examined utilizing reflexive thematic analysis. Collectively, findings suggest that there is still work to be done to wholly understand the influence of perfectionism on sporting performance. However, athletes revealed during interviews that they experience perfectionistic reactivity through a multitude of biopsychosocial dimensions related to affect, behaviour, and cognition. Findings will allow future scholars to examine different measures of perfectionism across different performance intervals while considering the conceptual and empirical underpinnings of perfectionistic reactivity. Furthermore, future research could be designed to understand the specific circumstances under which specific thoughts, feelings, and behaviours are experienced in relation to perfectionistic reactivity.

Examining Gender Norms Of Body Image And Eating Behavior In NCAA Student-Athletes

Examining Gender Norms Of Body Image And Eating Behavior In NCAA Student-Athletes

“We Just couldn’t Talk About that”: Unmasking Male Student-Athletes’ Experiences of Emotional Abuse

Numerous empirical efforts have sought to understand the emotional abuse experiences of female athletes, but less is known about how emotional abuse is experienced by males in sport. To address this gap, the present study was designed to explore how four male former NCAA student-athletes ( Mage = 32 years) experienced emotionally abusive coaching behaviors and how those behaviors were influenced by masculine socialization pressures. A multiple case study design and inductive-deductive thematic approach were utilized to collect and analyze retrospective data. Results highlight socialization pressures related to orthodox masculinity influenced participant experiences and recollections of emotional abuse.

Retired College Student Athletes’ Psychological Well-Being: A Prospective Analysis

For college student athletes, graduation coincides with a loss of competitive careers and athletic identities and begin a potentially traumatic transition to a new life phase. However, how athletes’ experience this developmental transition may be influenced by their readiness to retire. Thus, we prospectively examined how NCAA student athletes’ (N = 166) psychological well-being changed from graduation/retirement (T1) to four months later (T2) and determined the extent their readiness to retire, as represented by 12 key psychosocial dimensions (e.g., social support, athletic identity) predicted well-being at T2. Athletes completed a 12-item measure of retirement readiness at T1, measures of depressive symptomatology, body satisfaction, and life satisfaction at T1 and T2. Through regressions analyses, and controlling for gender and T1 well-being scores, we found that athletes who developed a new life focus and had positive social support systems at retirement from sport were more satisfied with their lives and less depressed four to five months later. For the athletes’ T2 body satisfaction, only their T1 satisfaction was a significant predictor. As one of the first studies to longitudinally examine collegiate athletes’ well-being over the first six months of retirement, our findings provide direction for additional research and development of programming that focuses on helping athletes maintain and extend their support networks as they transition from their teams and develop a new purpose and direction in their lives as they lose what had been present for them through their sport involvement. Implications for assisting collegiate athletes in transition from sport are provided.

Factors Influencing Time to Return to Learn Among NCAA Student-Athletes Enrolled in the Concussion Assessment, Research, and Education (CARE) Study.

The aim was to describe the demographic and post-injury factors that influence time to return to learn (RTL) among student-athletes enrolled in the Concussion Assessment, Research and Education (CARE) Consortium. A total of 47,860 student-athletes enrolled in the National Collegiate Athletic Association-Department of Defense (NCAA-DoD) CARE Consortium study from 2014 to 2020, with 1485 sport-related concussions (SRCs) analyzed in the present dataset. Demographic and post-injury characteristics were calculated using descriptive statistics, followed by Kaplan-Meier estimates to examine median time to return to normal academic performance (i.e., RTL) by sex (male, female), baseline psychiatric conditions (depression, anxiety) and/or learning disorder, NCAA division (I, II, III), SRC history (0, 1, 2, 3+), NCAA sport category (contact, limited contact, non-contact sport), and median difference in baseline/post-injury symptom severity scores (< 21, ≥ 21). Further, a multivariable zero-inflated negative binomial (ZINB) regression model was used to examine their association with RTL. Overall, time to RTL (mean = 4.96 ± 8.24days, median = 3.0 [interquartile range = 0.0, 6.0] days) was found to be influenced by several factors resulting in earlier trajectories. Notably, nearly 25% of the sample demonstrated immediate RTL (i.e., 0days). Among student-athletes who did not immediately RTL, males demonstrated a decreased rate in RTL (rate = 0.79; 95% CI 0.66-0.96) compared to females. Further, student-athletes with a ≥ 21 change in symptom severity score (post-injury baseline) demonstrated a higher rate of RTL (rate = 1.47; 95% CI 1.21-1.79) compared to student-athletes with a symptom severity change score < 21. Lastly, male student-athletes demonstrated two times higher odds (odds ratio = 1.95; 95% CI 1.02-3.73) of immediate RTL compared to female student-athletes. No other covariates were associated with time to RTL. Collectively, the present findings suggest a rapid return to the classroom following concussion. Specifically, males demonstrated higher odds of time to RTL, whereas those with greater differences in symptom severity resulted in a higher rate of time to RTL among those who did not immediately RTL. Ultimately, these findings support prior work emphasizing an individualized approach to SRC management.

Academic adjustments and concussion recoveries in NCAA student-athletes: a LIMBIC MATARS investigation

ABSTRACT Objective The aim of this study was to investigate the association between academic adjustments and recovery from sport-related concussions (SRCs) in collegiate athletes. Materials and Methods A retrospective medical chart review was performed between the 2015–2016 and 2019–2020 sport seasons at 11 Long-term Impact of Military-relevant Brain Injury Consortium Military and Tactical Athlete Research Study (LIMBIC MATARS) sites. Days between injury and symptom resolution, and injury and return to sport (dependent variables) for collegiate athletes who did or did not receive academic adjustments (independent variable) were analyzed using Mann–Whitney U tests. Results The number of days between date of injury and symptom-resolution between those who did (median = 9 [interquartile range = 5,16]) and did not have (7[3,12]) academic adjustments were statistically different (z=-2.76, p < 0.01, r=-0.17). However, no differences were observed between days to return to sport among those who did (14[10,22]) and did not (13[8,20]) receive assigned academic adjustments (z= −1.66, p = 0.10, r= −.10). Conclusions Recovery trajectories were similar between athletes diagnosed with a SRC who did or did not receive academic adjustments.. Our findings suggest academic adjustments supported recovery for those who needed academic adjustments. Clinicians and healthcare professionals should assist and support collegiate athletes after SRCs on an individual basis, including academic adjustments when appropriate based on patient presentation.

Interventions for the Mind, Body, and Spirit of NCAA Student-Athletes: An Evidence to Practice Review

Interventions for the Mind, Body, and Spirit of NCAA Student-Athletes: An Evidence to Practice Review

Intersection of Race and Socioeconomic Status on Concussion Recovery among NCAA Student-Athletes: A CARE Consortium Study.

The objectives of this study are to 1) describe collegiate student-athlete (SA) race and household income and 2) evaluate time to normal academic performance (i.e., return to learn (RTL)), initiation of the return to play (iRTP) protocol, RTP protocol duration, and time to unrestricted RTP (URTP) after sustaining sport-related concussion (SRC). Data were collected between 2014 and 2020 by the Concussion Assessment, Research, and Education Consortium. Baseline data were used to characterize participant demographics ( N = 22,819) and post-SRC outcomes ( n = 5485 SRC) in time to RTL ( n = 1724) and RTP outcomes ( n = 2646) by race. Descriptive statistics and nonparametric tests examined differences across race by demographic and injury characteristics. Kaplan-Meier curves estimated median days to RTL, iRTP protocol, RTP protocol completion, and URTP by race and covariate measures. Multivariable Cox proportional hazards regression assessed the effect of race on risk of RTL and RTP recovery time points. SA largely identified as White (75%) followed by Black (14%), multiracial (7%), and Asian (3%). More than half (53%) of all SA reported a household income of >$120,000, whereas 41% of Black SA reported a household income <$60,000. Race was not associated with relative risk of RTL or iRTP but was associated with RTP protocol completion and URTP. Non-Black/non-White SA were 17% less likely (adjusted hazard ratio = 0.83; 95% confidence interval = 0.71, 0.97) to complete the RTP protocol, and Black SA were 17% more likely (adjusted hazard ratio = 1.17; 95% confidence interval = 1.05, 1.31) to reach the URTP time point compared with White SA. The present findings suggest collegiate SA enrolled in the Concussion Assessment, Research, and Education Consortium are primarily White and come from household incomes well above the US median. Race was not associated with RTL or iRTP but was associated with RTP protocol duration and total time to URTP. Clinicians should be conscientious of how their implicit or preconceived biases may influence SRC management among National Collegiate Athletic Association SA.

Media Framing of Student-Athlete Suicide: An Examination of Problems, Causes, Moral Evaluations and Treatment Recommendations

At least five NCAA student athletes died by suicide in spring 2022. The deaths generated national news media attention while underscoring the stressors student-athletes face in relation to mental health. Journalists play an important role in shaping public understanding of issues, including mental health and suicide. By framing issues, journalists can shape the way audiences interpret (a) problems, (b) their causes, (c) their moral implications, and (d) potential treatments. The present study used thematic analysis to understand how four types of news organizations framed the student-athletes' deaths by suicide in 2022. The study examined 75 stories from national news outlets (e.g., Washington Post), sports publications (e.g., ESPN), student publications (e.g., The Badger Herald at the University of Wisconsin-Madison), and community publications (e.g., The Capital Times in Madison, WI). News stories identified environmental factors (e.g., poor mental health resources, stress) as a problem for student-athletes, while describing misplaced university priorities as a cause. Journalists described a need for universities and the NCAA to improve the depth and breadth of mental health resources for student-athletes, describing the action as a moral imperative. Implications are discussed in relation to sports communication and health communication.

Masculine Drinking Norms and Alcohol Use in a National Sample of NCAA Male Student-Athletes.

Participation in sports can increase young adults' risk for heavy alcohol use and related consequences. Among student-athletes, more men report heavy drinking than women. These gender differences may reflect men's expression of masculinity which can encompass excessive consumption. While a growing body of research indicates that general masculine norms are positively associated with alcohol use and consequences among men, the extent to which alcohol-specific masculine norms can increase student-athletes' risk for elevated drinking and related outcomes is not yet known. Thus, we examined how masculine drinking norms are associated with alcohol use and related consequences while accounting for demographics and multiple dimensions of general masculine norms. 1,825 NCAA student-athletes (White=79%, Mage=20.1/SDage=1.3; 50 colleges/universities) completed a confidential online survey which included questions regarding masculine drinking norms of excess and control and conformity to general masculine norms. We created latent constructs and tested a path model in SEM. Results indicated that, after accounting for demographics and multiple dimensions of general masculine norms, the masculine drinking norm of excess was positively associated with alcohol use and consequences. Conversely, control was negatively related to alcohol use but unrelated to consequences. Compared to control and other dimensions of general masculine norms, excess was most strongly related to alcohol use and consequences. A move from assessing general masculine norms toward alcohol-specific masculine norms can further researchers' and practitioners' knowledge of masculine norms and their link to drinking behaviors, and enhance the application of masculine norms in alcohol intervention and prevention programs.

Injury Rates in NCAA Student-Athletes Increased after COVID-19 Lockdowns: A Descriptive Epidemiological Study

Injury Rates in NCAA Student-Athletes Increased after COVID-19 Lockdowns: A Descriptive Epidemiological Study

Organic self-talk content categories and their relations to sport-specific contextual and personal factors

While strategic self-talk interventions are well documented, less is known regarding organically occurring self-talk. Previously, eight organic self-talk content categories were identified, however contextual and personal factors relating to these categories is unexplored. The aim of the study was to explore the relationships between stress, coping, athletic identity, demographic and sport-related factors and the eight organic self-talk categories of anxiety control, confidence, disengagement, instruction, psych-up, somatic fatigue, worry, and irrelevant. 216 NCAA student-athletes were recruited. Regression was used to determine the relationships between the contextual and personal variables and organic self-talk. Stress, coping and self-talk categories were compared in and out-of-season. Stress was associated with all self-talk frequencies except confidence. Coping was associated with psych-up, confidence and worry. Athletic identity was associated with psych-up, confidence, instruction and disengagement. Age was associated with anxiety control and instruction. Lastly, sport type and division level were associated with disengagement and instruction self-talk respectively.

Resilience and Enhancement in Sport, Exercise, & Training (RESET): A brief self-compassion intervention with NCAA student-athletes

Athletes often believe that self-criticism is necessary to avoid complacency, but this attitude can lead to anxiety and stress. Research shows that self-compassion is an adaptive way to relate to mistakes and challenges. Although there are many benefits of self-compassion, fear that self-compassion harms performance may discourage athletes from adopting this approach. This study developed and tested an online self-compassion intervention for athletes called RESET (Resilience and Enhancement in Sport, Exercise, & Training), adapted from the Mindful Self-Compassion program. Between-group analyses (multilevel modeling; MLM) and within-group analyses (paired t-tests) were used to assess the effectiveness of the intervention on athletes’ ability to respond compassionately to failure, improve well-being, and increase perceived sport performance. Compared to the waitlist control (n = 102, 71% women), the intervention group (n = 148, 90% women) experienced greater increases in self-compassion, decreases in self-criticism and fear of self-compassion, and greater improvements in perceived performance. In general, the intervention was more effective for those who had the most room for growth. Within-group analyses supported the MLM findings while also showing that athletes who participated in the RESET program experienced reduced levels of depression, anxiety, and stress. Program evaluation measures, including participant testimonials, extend the quantitative findings and demonstrate that RESET was engaging, well-liked, and effective.

Exploring the Impact of Coaches’ Emotional Abuse on Intercollegiate Student-Athletes’ Experiences

ABSTRACT Despite widespread anecdotal accounts of coaches’ emotional abuse in intercollegiate sports, empirical literature is lacking. To address this gap, the present exploratory study was designed to explore how former intercollegiate student-athletes interpreted experiences of emotionally abusive coaching. Former female NCAA and NJCAA student-athletes (N = 14; M age = 25.3 years) took part in semi-structured, in-depth interviews. Data were interpreted using a constructivist grounded theory approach. The final product of the research was a three-stage grounded theory explaining how former student-athletes interpret their experiences of emotional abuse over time organized into sections on antecedents to abuse, experiences and actions within the abusive program, and after the abuse. Implications for this work include the idea that individual student-athletes may have different experiences and recollections of coaches’ emotionally abusive behavior and that intercollegiate student-athletes are able to discern between “hard, but fair” coaching practices and emotionally abusive coaching practices.

Mental Health Resources for NCAA Student-Athletes

Alyssa Williams, the Student-Athlete Advisory Committee (SAAC) president at Oak Grove University (OGU), wants to meet with the assistant athletic director after conversing with the Student-Athlete Advisory Committee group dedicated to student-athlete well-being. Alyssa meets with Dr. Nora Coleman to discuss how student-athletes want more resources to support mental health conditions at Oak Grove University. Dr. Coleman agrees and asks Alyssa to readdress the Student-Athlete Advisory Committee group so they can identify the mental factors affecting them and to compare and contrast using internal and external resources. After finding this information, Alyssa will have a follow-up meeting with Dr. Coleman to make a proposal and address the university’s athletic board.

A Measure of Burnout in Current NCAA Student-Athletes.

IntroductionThe prevalence of athletes who specialize in sports has increased in recent years. Substantial literature on youth sports has linked early sport specialization to negative consequences, such as burnout and injury. However, empirical evidence comparing rates of burnout and specialization in NCAA athletes is limited. The purpose of this study was to survey current NCAA Division I student-athletes to compare levels of burnout to sex, year of NCAA eligibility, and age at the beginning of sport specialization.MethodsA self-reported survey was distributed to student-athletes at two NCAA Division I institutions, which included demographics, sport specialization history, injury history, and the Athlete Burnout Questionnaire. Results from the three measures of the Athlete Burnout Questionnaire (reduced sense of accomplishment, exhaustion, sport devaluation) were compared to sex, year of NCAA eligibility, age of beginning sport specialization, and injury history.ResultsA total of 267 athletes (95 males and 172 females) completed the survey. Of those, 156 (58.4%) were in their first or second year of NCAA eligibility, and 111 (41.6%) were in their third, fourth, or fifth year. Of the total, 121 (46.4%) reported specializing before the age of 15, and 140 (53.6%) specialized at age 16 or older. Females reported significantly higher levels of exhaustion than males (Difference of means (M) = 0.43, 95% confidence interval (CI) = [0.20, 0.66], p < 0.01). Athletes in their third, fourth, or fifth year of eligibility reported significantly higher levels of sport devaluation (M = 0.27, 95% CI = [0.05, 0.48], p < 0.05) than athletes in their first or second year. Athletes who specialized before age 15 did not report significantly higher levels of burnout than athletes who specialized at age 16 or later. In total, 203 athletes (77.2%) reported experiencing any injury. Athletes who reported a history of experiencing any injury demonstrated significantly higher feelings of reduced sense of accomplishment than athletes with no injury history (Difference of means (M) = 0.24, 95% confidence interval (CI) = [0.03, 0.45], p < 0.05).ConclusionsAthletes were more likely to experience elevated levels of burnout if they reported female sex, older NCAA eligibility, or a past injury history. However, athletes were not more likely to experience increased burnout based on age of beginning specialization. The results demonstrated a need to address burnout in athletes following injury and to be aware that females and older athletes are more prone to burnout.

Anonymous Screening Increases Self Reported Symptoms Of Mental Health In College Athletes

PURPOSE: To identify the effect of anonymous vs identified screening for depression, anxiety and eating disorders in college student athletes. METHODS: NCAA student athletes were electronically screened for mental health disorders using the PHQ-9 (depression), GAD-7 (anxiety) and SCOFF (eating disorder) questionnaires. A positive result correlated with a score of 10 or more on the PHQ-9 and GAD-7, and 2 or more on the SCOFF. The screening tests were completed between the 2020 and 2021 academic years by students attending major universities in the Greenville, South Carolina area. Both surveys were completed from the same collegiate population via the same online platform with or without collection of names and demographic info as part of preparticipation paperwork and history taking. The results by both groups were collected in each of the 3 categories (Table 1) and reported as a percentage of the total number of athletes in the group. The percentage of positive screens in each category was compared between the identified and anonymous groups and the Chi-squared test was used for determination of statistical significance. RESULTS: 949 athletes participated. Two-thirds were male and 502 were identified while 447 reported anonymously. Positive screening captures were reduced in each category in the identified group compared to the anonymous screening. Percent positive screens dropped from 11.3% to 1.4% (p < 0.0001) on the PHQ-9, from 15.3% to 2.2% (p < 0.00001) on the GAD-7, and from 6.4% to 2.4% (p = 0.01) on the SCOFF. Overall, positive screening on any of the tools dropped from 22.6% to 4.4% (p < 0.00001). CONCLUSION: The prevalence of positive mental health screening in student athletes is dramatically lower when athletes are identified compared to anonymous screening. Considering the high prevalence of mental health disorders in athletes, it is important to identify athletes at risk accurately on screening to intervene appropriately.

U.S. Citizenship Supremacy

On July 1, 2021, most NCAA student-athletes could finally monetize their names, images, and likenesses (NIL). Although the change was both welcome and historic, international college athletes (ICAs) could not. This commentary situates NIL within the broader context of U.S. nationalism, anti-immigrant sentiment, and college sports. We find that U.S. immigration laws combined with NCAA amateur policies prevent ICAs from monetizing their NIL. We conclude with reform suggestions at the legal, policy, and practice levels that will benefit all international students and immigrant workers.

Pandemics and Athletics: How COVID-19 Affected Sport Injury Rehabilitation

Purpose: This study sought to better understand the lived experiences of NCAA student-athletes who suffered an injury during the COVID-19 pandemic. Methods: The study utilized a descriptive phenomenological approach with focus groups. Researchers interviewed eleven student-athletes that fit the inclusion criteria. Researchers analyzed interview transcriptions for themes. Results: Themes included: (1) emotional stress, (2) impact on interpersonal relationships, and (3) delay in recovery. The research team identified subthemes to further expand the concepts illustrated within the main themes. Conclusions: This research provides insight to the common reactions of a student-athlete post-injury, interpersonal impacts on a student-athlete from both their injury and COVID-19, rehabilitation changes due to COVID-19, and a perspective from injured student-athletes on the current availability and effectiveness of athletic training and wrap-around mental-health resources. Applications in Sport: This information proves valuable for athletic trainers, sport psychologists, sport social workers, and other physical and behavioral health providers working to promote the rehabilitation and well-being of an injured athlete during global pandemics.