History Of Navy Research Articles

T.R. Hollcroft’s Problem

JN-25 was the primary World War II Japanese naval cipher. It was introduced in 1939 and evolved throughout the war, presenting US Navy codebreakers with a succession of challenges. When JN-25N-62 was introduced on 25 July 1944, one question that arose for US Navy codebreakers was the function of two digits in the starting point indicator: did they represent a pair of single-digit numbers or a single two-digit number? US Navy codebreakers knew Japanese cipher clerks often chose an additive in the leftmost column of a page of additives as the starting point for the string of text additives. This lack of randomness enabled an attack on the indicator. Navy codebreakers used a statistical test to decide between the two possibilities. Construction of the necessary probability tables was assigned to Temple Rice Hollcroft, a mathematician on the faculty of Wells College. Hollcroft’s problem is documented in an internal Navy history, but that history raises almost as many questions as it answers. This article explores the construction of Hollcroft’s tables, how they were used, and why Hollcroft was selected to construct the tables.

LEGAL REGULATION OF NAVAL FORCES ACTIVITY: WORLD EXPERIENCE

Background. The analysis of the evolution of the regulation of the navy cannot be carried out without considering the reflection of the relevant aspects in the naval historical thought. These scientific researches first of all have no legal orientation and have as their subject the content and nature of the activity of the navy, in particular in measuring its formation and development. At the same time, their generalization and evaluation in the legal dimension would be useful in the context of determining the relationship between historical thought and the development of naval law. An analysis of recent research and publications has shown that, despite aspects of the attention of legal historians to the issue of regulatory support of the armed forces, there is no relevant works on the evolution of the legal regulation of the navy. The aim of the article is to correlate global historical thought and legal support for the activities of the navy. To solve this goal, it is necessary to determine the development of relevant historical thought, to characterize its implementation in the works on naval doctrine and strategy, to assess the importance of relevant works for the development of naval law. Materials and methods. In the course of the research historical-legal, comparative, systemic, epistemological, hermeneutic, biographical methods were used. Results. The reflection of aspects of legal regulation of activity of naval forces in works of historians of fleet is investigated. The formation of the history of the navy from the seventeenth century in terms of special research and works on naval tactics and strategy is considered. It is proved that at the first stage these researches had the character of empirical generalization and provision of tactical activity of the sailing and then mechanized fleet, but from the end of the XIX century this experience was gained in the development of a maritime strategy. Conclusion. Historical studies of naval development first emerged at the appropriate scientific level as part of the development of naval tactics and strategies by French, British and American authors, whose works constitute an interconnected universal and universally recognized system of scientific research begun in the late seventeenth century. At the first stage, these studies were in the nature of empirical generalization and ensuring the tactical activities of the sailing and then mechanized fleet. But from the end of the XIX century this experience was gained in the development of a naval strategy, which gained universal character and indisputable authority for the naval forces of the most countries. In addition to use in works on naval tactics and strategy, the history of the navy from the eighteenth century reflected in biographical works, and in the twentieth century the most of the relevant historical works began to have the character of memoirs. Because the world-renowned fundamental works on naval strategy and tactics belong primarily to American and British authors, the domestic dimension of historical scientific research in this area is extremely limited. Thus, these issues require new research. Keywords: naval forces, history of navy, naval law, naval doctrine, naval strategy.

In Close Combat: Vice-Admiral Lord Horatio Nelson's Injuries in the Napoleonic Wars

Born in Norfolk, England, on September 29, 1758, Horatio Nelson was the sixth of eleven children in a working-class family. With the help of his uncle, Maurice Suckling, a captain in the Royal Navy, Nelson began his naval career as a 13-year-old midshipman on the British battleship Raisonnable. His courage and leadership in the battle marked him for promotion, and he rose quickly from midshipman to admiral, serving in the West Indies, East Indies, North America, Europe, and even the Arctic. As his rank ascended, Nelson's consistent strategy was close engagement, an approach that led to success in combat but placed him in direct danger. Thus, Britain's greatest warrior was also her most famous patient: Nelson suffered more injuries and underwent more operations than any other flag officer in Royal Navy history. His career reached a climax off Cape Trafalgar, where he not only led the Royal Navy to victory over the combined French and Spanish fleets but also met his own death.

A MAN WHO KNEW MEN: THE MEMOIRS OF MAJ M.G. IND

In January 1990 there occurred the death of Maj Montagu G. lnd, at the age of 89. He was, to the best of the author's knowledge, the last surviving member of those seconded Royal Navy personnel who sailed to South Africa in the three vessels, Crozier, Eden and Foyle, and who formed the nucleus of the South African Naval Services (1921-1934). However, it is felt that his memoirs possess a deep and multi-faceted appeal, which transcend his long and extremely varied military career (spanning 40 years and encompassing service in the Royal Navy, South African Naval Services, South African Instructional Corps and South African Air Force). This interest may be defined in terms which the author categorizes as both intrinsic and extrinsic. The intrinsic facet relates to the subject of the memoirs, rooted in the personality and service of Maj Ind. It is beyond dispute that that career is truly extraordinary, in several important respects. First, with regard to the biographical dimension, Maj Ind was, in all probability, the youngest member to serve in the ill-starred and horrendous Gallipoli campaign, serving in the Royal Naval Division, renowned for the extremely heavy casualties that this unit incurred, and the savage fighting in which it was involved. Indeed, his extremely youthful experiences in combat have provided the source of the title of these memoirs. As Maj Ind states at one point, his service in the Dardanelles had formed a profound barrier between himself and those of his own age, as he had 'known men' in the extremities of combat, an awareness which, obviously, could not be shared with his peer group. Second, Maj Ind participated in little known, but nevertheless fascinating, episodes in British military history; exemplified in his service with the naval expeditionary force to Russia, immediately following the end of World War I. His ship's sinking of a Russian destroyer, and capture of a second, highlights the revelation of obscure passages in the Royal Navy's history, through the medium of Maj Ind's memoirs; which relate at that point to the British Government's support of the newly independent Baltic states, in the face of Bolshevik aggrandisement.

Historical dictionary of the United States Navy

From its erratic creation during the American Revolution to its current status as the world's largest maritime force, the United States Navy has exerted enormous influence on the development of the national charcter of the United States. The Historical Dictionary of the United States Navy does an excellent job of presenting the innumerable details of the navy's history in a manageable form. Each individual entry is informative, but does not burden the reader with unnecessary information. The book also includes cross-references that direct the reader to other useful dictionary entries, as well as a bibliography that is organized according to time period and subject to more effectively guide the reader to other sources of information on the United States Navy. Topics traced through two centuries of naval history include: prominent naval officers, weapons systems, categorizations of ships and aircraft, engagements, and terminology used by the service. Also included is a chronology of the major events that impacted upon the United States Navy. A useful text for anyone interested in the impact of naval power upon history.

Modeling and Simulation of Notional Future Radar in Non‐Standard Propagation Environments Facilitated by Mesoscale Numerical Weather Prediction Modeling

AbstractNormal near surface radio‐frequency (RF) propagation in the littorals across the land–sea boundary is rare due to the land–sea temperature difference, coastline shape, ground cover, urban density, coastal topography, and soil moisture content. The resulting frequent existence of coastal non‐standard vertical profiles of refractivity and the resulting RF propagation has a profound impact on the performance of Navy ship‐borne radars operating within 100 nm of the shore. In addition, these non‐standard RF propagation conditions are spatio‐temporally inhomogeneous. These spatial and time dependent propagation conditions and the resulting radar engineering implications cannot be revealed by a single vertical profile of refractivity taken near the ship borne radar. The results from single profile analysis techniques provide no spatiotemporal information and may lead to overly conservative radar design. Mesoscale numerical weather prediction (NWP) is a rapidly maturing technology with a strong operational Navy history that can provide a vertical profile of refractivity every 1 km in the battle space and every hour, up to 48 h, in the future. The Sensor Division at NSWCDD has applied mesoscale NWP for the last 2 years to better understand the performance of prototype radar in realistic four‐dimensional (4D) coastal environments. Modern RF parabolic equation models are designed to model specific radar designs and to employ 3D refractivity fields from mesoscale NWP models. This allows for a radar design to be tested in realistic littoral non‐standard atmospheres produced by stable internal boundary layers, sea breeze events, and the more rare sub‐refractive events. Mesoscale NWP is currently qualitative for this purpose, but a research and development program focused on sea testing of prototype radars is described with the purpose of developing a more quantitative mesoscale NWP technology to support radar acquisition, testing, and operations.

The Milne Papers, vol. 1 (review)

Reviewed by: The Milne Papers, vol. 1 Andrew Lambert The Milne Papers, vol. 1. Publications of the Navy Record Society. Vol. 147. Edited by John Beeler. Burlington, Vt.: Ashgate Publishing, 2004. ISBN 0-7546-5063-4. Notes. List of documents. Indexes. Pp. xviii, 857. $144.95. As John Beeler rightly observes, Admiral of the Fleet Sir Alexander Milne Bt. (1806–96) was amongst the greatest officers of the nineteenth-century Royal Navy. Although he never saw a gun fired in anger, his contribution to the reform of naval administration, logistics, manpower, education, and strategy mark him out as a complete naval policy maker, while his service afloat demonstrated a mastery of diplomacy, both with foreign powers, and prickly fellow countrymen. He was also the pioneer of the nonpartisan officer corps of the twentieth century, the first Naval Lord to be retained by successive governments of different political persuasion. While Milne was denied the usual Victorian tombstone biography, probably because his long life lacked the conventional dramatic events, his extensive archive now at the National Maritime [End Page 235] Museum in Greenwich and his massive presence in the Admiralty Records have made his name familiar to many historians. Among those to exploit this archival wealth are Don Schurman, in his work on Colonial Defence and Regis Courtemache in a study of the Royal Navy and the American Civil War. Now the Navy Records Society has provided John Beeler with an opportunity to let Milne tell his own story, at full length. His career will require three massive volumes, of which this volume is the first, covering Milne's career to 1859. Milne went to sea in 1817, on his father's flagship, beginning a connection with the North American coast that would dominate his sea service. The son of an Admiral with strong Tory political connections, his career was made from the outset, but the correspondence reveals a dedicated and thoroughly professional officer taking pride in gunnery, seamanship, man management, scientific attainments, and nonpartisan friendships. In these years two things stand out: his ability to master and work the complex and diplomatically sensitive issue of the Newfoundland fisheries, and his distress when men or boys were killed falling from the rigging. In the 1840s he served as Flag Captain to a succession of Admirals, ending with the brilliant, but difficult, Charles Napier. Largely on Napier's recommendation he was transferred to the Admiralty in 1847, as the junior or 4th Naval Lord on Lord Auckland's Whig Board of Admiralty. Over the next twelve years, through five governments, he was intimately involved in the development of the policy and strategy, management and administration that transformed Nelson's Navy into a modern fighting service. He also provided the element of policy continuity between governments. His calm, thoughtful and determined approach combined with an almost limitless ability to take on work was in marked contrast to the episodic and inconsistent contribution of his older, politically active colleagues. During the Crimean War (1854–56) he ran the vital transport service that kept the British, French, and Sardinian armies supplied and reinforced in the Crimean theatre. He also found time to draft orders for the Franklin search missions and to consider the strategic implications of new technology. After 1856 the growing challenge of Imperial France focussed attention on strategy, and Milne provided one of the most moderate voices, recognising that heavy calibre artillery, steam flotilla craft, and ironclads had enhanced the offensive power of a dominant Navy. The award of a Civil Knighthood recognised his unprecedented service ashore. In 1859 he requested, and was appointed Commander in Chief on the North American Station, the subject of the second volume. While older naval histories focussed on battles and wars, warships and strategies, Milne's greatness lay elsewhere. Professor Beeler has provided a long overdue window onto a largely neglected era of the Royal Navy's history, which comes back to life in these pages. All students of the Royal Navy and naval policymaking will be better informed for reading this book, and anticipate further treasures from subsequent volumes. [End Page 236] Beeler is both an excellent editor and a sympathetic interpreter of his subject. This is...

Lincoln's Tragic Admiral: The Life of Samuel Francis Du Pont (review)

Reviewed by: Lincoln’s Tragic Admiral: The Life of Samuel Francis Du Pont Spencer C. Tucker Lincoln’s Tragic Admiral: The Life of Samuel Francis Du Pont. By Kevin J. Weddle. Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2005. ISBN 0-8139-2332-8. Maps. Photographs. Illustrations. Notes. Bibliography. Index. Pp. 269. $34.95. Until a few years ago almost all books about the Civil War dealt with fighting on land. This has changed with the appearance of a number of fine studies treating naval battles, ships, seamen, and commanders. Add to this growing list a fine biography of Rear Admiral Samuel Francis Du Pont by Kevin Weddle of the U.S. Army War College. In 1861, Captain Du Pont was a veteran of forty-six years of naval service. He was best known for having chaired the 1855 Naval Efficiency Board that eliminated much deadwood from the officer corps. In his discussion of this episode, Weddle makes a strong case for the importance to the navy of the 1855 Naval Efficiency Act. As chair of the Efficiency Board, Du Pont established his reputation as a reformer. Weddle also stresses Du Pont's deserved reputation as an advocate of new technology in a service often reluctant to embrace change. Secretary of the Navy Gideon Welles thought enough of Du Pont at the beginning of the war to appoint him as chair of the Commission on Conference, popularly known as the Blockade Board. This was a critical assignment, as the board set all Union naval strategy. Then in September 1861, Du Pont took command of the South Atlantic Blockading Squadron. Two months later, he commanded the largest fleet in U.S. Navy history to that point in the successful capture of Port Royal, South Carolina, which then became a major Union naval base. Promoted to rear admiral in July 1862, Du Pont then directed the much more difficult Union effort to capture Charleston. Weddle's treatment of Du Pont's attack on Charleston in April 1863 is deftly handled and his assessment of Du Pont's role in that abortive operation seems both judicious and fair. Weddle points out that in fact the task of trying to take Charleston with naval forces alone was an impossible one, [End Page 238] given the limitations of the slow-firing Union monitors. Du Pont was correct in his belief that a combined operation with the land forces was the only way success could be achieved against the formidable Confederate forts. Secretary Welles and Assistant Secretary of the Navy Gustavus Fox simply did not understand the reality of the situation. At the same time, Weddle makes clear that Du Pont was his own worst enemy in the way he handled criticism of his actions and that this played a major role in his subsequent relief. Weddle's book is well written and makes extensive use of the relevant primary and secondary sources. He provides new insight into Du Pont's roles on both the Naval Efficiency Board and the Blockade Board. One interesting aspect is the author's discussion of Du Pont's change in attitude toward slavery, the consequence of what he discovered in the South. While this book appears intended primarily for naval history specialists and college and university libraries, it will no doubt also appeal to a growing number of Civil War naval enthusiasts. Spencer C. Tucker Lexington, Virginia Copyright © 2006 Society for Military History

Review: The Port Chicago Mutiny: The Story of the Largest Mass Mutiny Trial in U.S. Navy History, by Robert L. Allen

Review: <i>The Port Chicago Mutiny: The Story of the Largest Mass Mutiny Trial in U.S. Navy History</i>, by Robert L. Allen

RELIABILITY OF SHIPBOARD ELEVATORS — THERE IS HOPE FOR IMPROVEMENT

ABSTRACTIn 1980, at the Ship Systems Technical Symposium in Cherry Hill, New Jersey, a paper was presented entitled “Reliability of Shipboard Elevators — Is There Hope for Improvement?” It painted a bleak picture of elevators and their future. The history of Navy cargo/weapons elevator installations does reveal a wide variety of equipment sizes and con figurations developed by numerous vendors working to different performance specifications for each contract. The result has been poor reliability, a proliferation of spare parts requirements, and logistic and maintenance nightmares. To correct this, NAVSEA has initiated various efforts, including a program to develop and test improved, standardized designs. The improvements expected by that program include standard capacities and speeds, lightweight construction and easy removability for maintenance. This is being accomplished through standard drawings and detailed, as opposed to performance, specifications. But the key to the success of this effort is to design and test for reliability, maintainability and safety. This is being accomplished by following NAVSEA Quality Assurance Plan 200, which specifies failure mode, criticality, stress, worst case and sneak circuit analyses.New equipment will be tested and evaluated at the new land based engineering site (LBES) at the Naval Ship Systems Engineering Station (NAVSSES), Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. This site has been designed to test elevator systems and components and simulate shipboard conditions including temperature and humidity. Initially, equipment intended for the new AOE‐6 and AE‐36 classes will be tested. The site will also be able to test cargo and weapons elevator doors and hatches in an aircraft carrier configuration. The site includes a standard hydraulic power unit (HPU) to operate flush deck and in‐trunk hatches and different door types. This paper describes the philosophy and methods for the overall standard elevator RDT&amp;E effort and how it will improve the reliability of shipboard cargo and weapons elevators.

Leatherneck: A Borrowed Nickname

MANY VISITORS to the Smithsonian Institution have found the Navy History Room to be delightfully interesting. Many of those same visitors have come away from that room, after viewing the Marine Corps Exhibit, with the firm conviction that they had learned how the popular nickname of Leatherneck had come into being. They have believed that this bit of information could be passed on to others without being challenged effectively. To provide the clincher in any discussion of the term, and to silence any scoffers, those same individuals would triumphantly assert, And, furthermore, I saw it at the Smithsonian! Ever since ... t\.ugust 10, 1954, when the U. S. Marine Corps opened its permanent exhibit at the National Museum,! a display card has been prominently placed before an old leather stock which has constituted the focal point of interest in one of the exhibit cases. The card, with seeming authoritativeness, states: