Naval Officer Research Articles

Oliver Hazard Perry: Honor, Courage, and Patriotism in the Early U.S. Navy (review)

Oliver Hazard Perry: Honor, Courage, and Patriotism in the Early U.S. Navy. By David Curtis Skaggs. (Annapolis, MD: U.S. Naval Institute Press, 2006. Pp. 384. Cloth, $34.95.)Reviewed by James ParleyIn his biography of Oliver Hazard Perry, David Skaggs has produced a study that is both academically excellent and readable, a rare and commendable combination. The work begins with a discussion of Perry's family background and formative years in Newport, Rhode Island. These several chapters are the weaker part of the study. In order to set the foundation for his argument that Perry derived his essential character traits-honor, courage, and patriotism-from his family, especially his maternal grandmother, and from his childhood in seaport Newport, Skaggs is forced to rely on second-hand, anecdotal sources. Unfortunately, the first-hand sources on Perry are few: Upon her death in 1858, Perry's widow, Betsy Perry, ordered all his papers and letters burned.Skaggs accurately and thoroughly describes Perry's early naval career, beginning with his commission in 1799 as a midshipman on the warship General Greene^ commanded by his father, Captain Christopher Raymond Perry. Throughout the work, Skaggs notes the importance of political patronage to the careers of early naval officers, from his father's commission to his own and to the patronage both in political and naval circles that Perry cultivated through his career. Midshipman Perry's first cruise to the Caribbean proved to be tragically prophetic. Here he gained his first experiences with the role of a naval officer as a seagoing diplomat during Toussaint L'Ouverture's rebellion, and he witnessed an outbreak of yellow fever that decimated the crew of the General Greene, and that would finally take Perry's own life in 1819.Skaggs continues by discussing Perry's education as a young officer on two cruises to the Mediterranean from 1802 to 1806 under the command of Captain Hugh Campbell. Other than relating that Perry found Campbell to be a domineering commander who, surprisingly, tolerated an act of gross insubordination by Perry, Skaggs says little about their relationship. This is an important omission. Campbell, a little known but important captain, had a substantial reputation for training young naval officers, and, during the four years that Perry served under him, Perry must have learned the basics of naval command that would serve him so well in the future.In chapters 3 through 5, Skaggs describes the prelude to the Battle of Lake Erie, and especially Perry's construction of the Lake Erie fleet under nearly impossible circumstances, as well as the great battle itself. Here Skaggs finds his metier. His knowledge of the battle and his ability to tell the story clearly are superb. Yet even here Skaggs could have made a stronger argument for Perry's greatest attribute as a military commander. For all his noble characteristics-honor, courage, and patriotism-and all his flaws-his self-promotion, impetuosity, and uncontrollable temper-Perry possessed the rarest and most valued characteristic of all, the ability to get men to follow him in battle, even at the peril and cost of their lives, and to do it gladly.Skaggs concludes his biography with a discussion of Perry's brief career from the Battle of Lake Erie until his death at the mouth of the Orinoco River in 1819. At the time of his death, Perry was only thirtyfour years old, but he had been in the navy for twenty years. Ironically, it was Perry's ambition and his striving for the broad pennant, the rank of commodore and his appointment to the command of the special diplomatic Caribbean squadron, which led to his demise.Skaggs concludes with a twenty-seven-page epilogue on the Perry-Elliott controversy. Without repeating all the details here, the controversy stems from Jesse Elliott's behavior at a crucial point in the Battle of Lake Erie. Did Elliott, in command of the Niagara, follow orders and stay in line of battle, or did Elliott disobey orders and fail to engage the British ship, Queen Charlotte^ for two hours, while it and three other British ships pounded Perry's ship, the Lawrence^ into smithereens? …

Kaoru Ishikawa: from fishbones to world peace

> In management, the first concern of the company is the happiness of the people connected with it. If people do not feel happy and cannot be made happy, that...

A fateful encounter: Sixty years later—Reflections on the Wada test

A fateful encounter: Sixty years later—Reflections on the Wada test

Lillee S. Gelinas, RN, MSN, FAAN

Lillee S. Gelinas, RN, MSN, FAAN

Engaging Japan: An American Naval Officer's Relationship with Japan during the Cold War

It all started on 2 June 1963, the day I graduated from Marquette University in Milwaukee, Wisconsin. That same day, I was commissioned as an ensign in the United States Navy. Although ensigns are lowest in the pecking order of naval officers, I got my first choice of duty, a coastal minesweeper homeported in Sasebo, Japan. I knew nothing of Japan, but my junior and senior year Naval Reserve Officer Training Corps instructor convinced me that small ship duty (“where you will immediately be a department head”) was preferable to serving on an aircraft carrier (“where you will be the assistant Coca Cola procurement officer”). Since I was single, I also desired to test the World War I Navy recruiting slogan, “Join the Navy and See the World!” Sasebo was the most remote place where the Navy based ships, and Japan sounded exciting.

The religious politics of prophecy: Or, Richard Brothers's Revealed Knowledge confuted

The messianic messages delivered to Londoners by the self-styled prophet, Richard Brothers, were regarded by many sceptical observers and pamphleteers as eccentric or, worse still, the embarrassing utterances of someone wishing to reprise the political turmoil of a by-gone era marred by religious ‘fanaticism’. This article shows the extent to which Brothers's messages, as set down in his Revealed Knowledge of the Prophecies and Times (1794–1795), were absolutely central to the religious politics and culture of the 1790s—or what one contemporary critic mockingly referred to as the ‘age of prophecy’. Brothers's prophecies came to the attention of the British government, which culminated in his arrest for treasonable practices in March 1795 when he became a cause célèbre, before being confined to an asylum for eleven years. He was deemed a criminal lunatic but, as this article seeks to demonstrate, his ‘prophetic imagination’ arose out of the same rich theological, political and cultural context that spurred ‘radicals’ like Tom Paine, whilst inspiring poets and artists such as William Blake. If the content of his prophecies were regarded by contemporary sceptics for having no validity, it remains true to say that Richard Brothers, as an educated gentleman and naval officer, dramatically altered 18th-century expectations and perceptions of what prophets were and the nature of prophecy itself.

Letters to the Editor

To the Editor: Since a baptismal record and muster lists actually exist, Vincent Carretta's objection to my review may be about the way I have de-scribed them in my review. I slipped up by writing January instead of February 1759, but this does not in any way detract from the sub-stance of my critique. I wrote that “Equiano's … slave name and purported Carolina birth-place had appeared on record for the first time through the handiwork of his naval officer master….” This refers to Michael Henry Paschal's role in enrolling Equiano; it is not the same as “muster list records supposedly made by [Paschal],” as Carretta supposes.

A shadow of red: communism and the blacklist in radio and television

The Cold War came to broadcasting in 1950. In that year, just as the Korean War was about to erupt, there appeared from a small publisher a booklet called Red Channels, which listed 151 suspected Communist sympathizers in broadcasting. Within months the blacklist in radio and TV began. The purge of the airwaves, distinct from the better-known blacklist in the movie industry, provoked one of the American media's great free-speech controversies. It affected scores of writers, directors, and actors, yet it was instigated by only a handful of anti-Red watchdogs-three ex-FBI agents, a former naval intelligence officer, and a grocer from Syracuse. A Shadow of Red follows the efforts of these five guardians of the broadcast media in a revealing history of the period, based on interviews, personal correspondence, FBI reports, and court transcripts. The conflict has routinely been portrayed as a simplistic morality tale of persecutors and the persecuted, the standard witch-hunt narrative of right-wing fanatics hounding political innocents whom they insisted were agents of the Communist devil. But, as David Everitt makes clear, the blacklisters, though excessive and destructive, were not deluded hunters of an imaginary menace. Their crusade is best understood as the culmination of a long-standing ideological struggle in broadcasting, in which neither side would indulge its adversaries. Ultimately the conflict would be decided in a historic and dramatic libel trial that brought all the issues, and all the old grievances, into the open. A Shadow of Red is brilliant history, a cautionary tale about civil liberties in a time of emergency, and a vivid example of the polarized political battle over who controls the media, a battle that continues to this day.

Historia de un cosmopolita: José María de Lanz y la fundación de la Ingeniería de Caminos en España y América

Manuel Lucena Giraldo’s book explores the eventful life and career of José María de Lanz, military man, scientist, professor, imperial bureaucrat, and creole patriot. Of the eighteenth-century enlightened Spanish scientists who are considered the founders of modern science and technology in the Hispanic American world, José María de Lanz is perhaps the least known. Lucena Giraldo hopes to shed light on the content and transcendence of José María de Lanz’s scientific and technological writings and discoveries, as well as his contribution to the establishment of academic and research institutions in the Hispanic world. Going beyond the sometimes limited scope of the biographic genre, this book provides a case study of the social and cultural history of the Enlightenment in the Spanish Americas. It offers information on themes such as the sociology of the Spanish imperial administration; the history of creole education, ideology, and culture; the history of modern science; and the history of the transfer of technological knowledge in the Atlantic world during the revolutionary age.The experience of José María de Lanz illustrates, for instance, the cosmopolitan nature of the creole elite’s education, with elementary studies in their place of birth completed by a prolonged and intense period of formation in Europe. Following that pattern, José María de Lanz was born in Campeche, New Spain, and attended institutions such as the Seminario de Vergara in the Spanish Basque country, where he acquired a solid background in the latest scientific and technological knowledge, along with the traditional curriculum in religion and the humanities. After the seminar years, de Lanz entered the exclusive Real Academia de Guardamarinas de Cádiz, which launched his brilliant career in the Spanish Royal Navy. He served as an officer and became a part of the eighteenth-century military community involved in the promotion of scientific knowledge and the culture of the Enlightenment. During these early years as an enlightened naval officer, José María de Lanz collaborated in a variety of research projects, the most important being the elaboration of the Atlas Marítimo de España.Everything in the early professional years of our protagonist pointed toward a prosperous career in the service of the Spanish imperial administration — until he was sent to Paris in 1789 on a mission of technological espionage. There, his life underwent a substantial change that transformed him into an international scientist, a renegade, an exile, an admirer of and collaborator with Napoleon, and a future activist for the independence of Spanish America.Lucena Giraldo constructs Lanz’s scientific and political biography by gathering an impressive array of information from diverse European and American archives and libraries — an admirable piece of puzzle solving that constitutes one of the main merits of the book. The author tracks Lanz’s early scholarship in the field of differential and integral calculus, analyzes his contributions to the field of cartography and cadastral geography in France during the revolutionary years, and describes his cooperation with Agustín de Betancourt, which produced his two most noteworthy legacies: the publication of the innovative and popular work on applied mechanics, Ensayo sobre la composición de las máquinas, and the design and implementation of a curriculum for the career of civil engineering that established that profession in Spain (Ingeniero de Canales y Caminos). The study concludes with a chapter on Lanz’s return to Latin America in 1822, where he lent his scientific skills and political and administrative experience to the process of nation building in Gran Colombia.Historia de un cosmopolita is a good example of the progress made in the historiography of science and technology in Latin America during the last two decades. As the author points out at the beginning, in Latin America the field is still at an early stage, less advanced than in Europe and the United States. One of the tasks to be tackled, according to the author, is the “location, description, and evaluation of the contributions made by the members of the scientific community” (p. 17). There is no doubt that this book constitutes a notable contribution in that direction.

Uriah Levy: Reformer of the Antebellum Navy (review)

Reviewed by: Uriah Levy: Reformer of the Antebellum Navy Kevin J. Weddle Uriah Levy: Reformer of the Antebellum Navy. By Ira Dye . Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2006. ISBN 0-8130-3004-3. Photographs. Illustrations. Notes. Bibliography. Index. Pp. xii, 299. $59.95. Ira Dye, historian and retired naval officer, has succeeded in the daunting task of recounting the life of Uriah Levy, an important antebellum figure in the U.S. Navy. Skillfully connecting the dots using meager written records, Dye has produced a well-written and engaging story of an officer who faced the difficult challenges of a mostly peacetime military career in the antebellum period, while at the same time experiencing daily anti-Semitism at the hands of his subordinates, peers, and superiors. Born into a prominent Philadelphia Jewish family, Levy ran away to sea and the merchant service in 1802 and rose to command his own ship at the tender age of nineteen. He joined the U.S. Navy in 1812 where he served until his death in 1862. In addition to his naval service, Levy turned shrewd real estate investments into a personal fortune and used it to purchase Thomas Jefferson's Monticello, saving it from ruin. During his fifty years on active duty, Levy did not see combat, but he served faithfully in peace and in war and his life story provides a wonderful glimpse into the social history of the U.S. Navy. Dye reveals the frustrations endured by ambitious officers while serving under a system that rewarded longevity over merit. He also sheds light on the navy's often close knit, yet just as often dysfunctional, wardrooms. Petty disagreements, misunderstandings, perceived and genuine slights, and very real prejudice could and did lead to discord on board U.S. Navy ships. Levy experienced it all and, indeed, was responsible for many of the problems he encountered along the way. Levy was arrogant, proud, loud-mouthed, and hot-tempered and was often unpleasant and insulting to his fellow officers. Because of his "prickly" personality, Levy was often in conflict with his fellow officers. These confrontations led to one duel in which Levy killed an officer in 1816, and several courts-martial. While Levy and others claimed that many of these difficulties were due to anti-Semitism in a predominately gentile officer corps, Dye objectively observes that "most of his problems were the result of his own behavior" (p. 105). It is not surprising that Levy was one of those officers selected for removal from the officer corps by the 1855 Efficiency Board, although he was reinstated in 1857. On the other hand, Levy could be a steadfast friend and comrade and he was an enlightened and dynamic leader, especially to his enlisted crewmembers. Dye's account of Levy's attempt to create a more positive leadership climate while commanding his first ship reveals just how tradition bound and resistant to change the U.S. Navy was between the War of 1812 and the Civil War. [End Page 925] Dye's use of neglected sources such as court-martial records help fill in the gaps in Levy's career and shed considerable light onto the state of the naval officer corps. The author's own thirty-year naval career provides insights into navy life that many historians might have missed. However, the book's title is a bit misleading. While Levy did try to implement a more enlightened command philosophy and vigorously opposed corporal punishment, he was certainly not a reformer in the same league as Robert Stockton, Samuel Francis Du Pont, and Matthew F. Maury. Also, the book is very expensive at $59.95. It will be a shame if the high price scares potential readers away. Those quibbles aside, this is an important book in helping to understand the antebellum naval officer corps, and Dye has done a great service by telling Levy's story. This book will appeal to naval historians and anyone interested in the antebellum military. Kevin J. Weddle U.S. Army War College Carlisle, Pennsylvania Copyright © 2007 Society for Military History

Knauss receives 2006 Waldo E. Smith Medal

John A. Knauss was awarded the Waldo E. Smith Medal at the AGU Fall Meeting honors ceremony, which was held on 13 December 2006 in San Francisco, Calif. The medal recognizes extraordinary service to geophysics.John Knauss has served as a leader and key decision‐maker in the scientific community and the public sector for nearly six decades. From the start of his career he focused on the most fundamental elements of the physical dynamics of the ocean, developing the seminal thinking in topics as diverse as turbulence effects on acoustics and deep ocean current observations. His early work on the Cromwell current established John as a leading researcher in the geophysics community. He quickly established a global reputation for his seminal work on the current structure of many major ocean circulation features. By the mid 1960s, Knauss had already established his scientific credentials and leadership role, with a robust bibliography of technical papers in the most prestigious scientific journals. Notably, in the years leading to this position, John also worked as a naval officer at the newly formed U.S. Office of Naval Research and as a staff member of the Scripps Institution of Oceanography (La Jolla, Calif.).

Basil Hall`s Account of a Voyage of Discovery: The Value of a British Naval Officer`s Account of Travels in the Seas of Eastern Asia in 1816

Basil Hall`s Account of a Voyage of Discovery to the West Coast of Corea and the Great Loochoo Island of 1818 is a valuable account of a British naval officer`s experiences which graphically illustrates the state of isolation of Korea at that time. It is also an important record because, being written just after the Napoleonic Wars in Europe, it stands chronologically on the cusp of historical events-Britain`s industrial development and imperial expansion. The views of Korea espoused by the Hall and his compatriots at that time are quite different from British views of Korea at the end of the nineteenth century.

L'MERGENCE D'UNE TECHNO-SCIENCE DE L'ENVIRONNEMENT OCANIQUE (1860-1914)

Abstracttitle ABSTRACT /title In the second half of the XIX century, one attends the emergence of a techno-science of the oceanic environment. We will consider one of the aspects of this emergence, by studying the program of wind cartography organized within the Depot des cartes et plans of the French Navy. We will analyze the practices, discourses, and epistemological standards at work in this context. We will consider particularly the action of naval officer Leon Brault (1839-1885). The new oceanographical and meteorological approaches of the second half of the century will seem to us strongly marked by the material and intellectual culture of industrial modernity.

Commodore John Rodgers: paragon of the early American Navy

Schroeder's interpretive biography restores Rodgers to his rightful place in history as the preeminent and most influential naval officer during America's Age of Sail. Between 1798 and 1815, Rodgers fought with distinction in the Naval War with France, the Barbary War, and the War of 1812. He shaped the postwar development of the navy as president of the Board of Navy Commissioners from 1815 to 1835, and he led a major diplomatic mission to the Mediterranean in the mid 1820s. Drawing on extensive manuscript sources - including the voluminous Rodgers family papers - and the wealth of articles, essays, and monographs on American naval history in recent years, Schroeder provides a candid appraisal of Rodgers' personal strengths and weaknesses, professional successes and failures. Resented for his gruff exterior but celebrated for his determination to build a navy of the highest professional standards, Rodgers never revealed to his naval contemporaries the passionate and emotional dimension of his character that is evident in his correspondence with his wife, Minerva, who bore him 11 children. Their letters represent a rare and remarkably detailed account of family life in the 19th century. Schroeder's thorough analysis of official documents offers a fresh perspective on the dramatic events of Rodgers' long career, including his personal involvement in the capture of the French frigate L'Insurgente in 1799, the war with Tripoli, the testing of Robert Fulton's experimental torpedoes in 1810, the Little Belt affair in 1811, the escape of the British frigate Belvidera in 1812, the defense of Baltimore in 1814, the deadly duel between Stephen Decatur and James Barron in 1820, and the introduction of steam power to the U.S. Navy.

James Alfred Van Allen

James Alfred Van Allen

L’héritage de la méthode suédoise d’éducation physique en France: les conflits de méthode au sein de l’Ecole normale de gymnastique et d’escrime de Joinville au début du XXème siècle

The Swedish physical education method has had a singular destiny in France. Originally created by the Swedish Per Henrik Ling (1776–1839), it first spread in France thanks to German doctors. From 1902, the Swedish method became the official method of the Ecole normale de gymnastique et d’escrime de Joinville. It caused serious dissension first within the army, between Georges Hébert, a naval officer attempting to spread his own method called ‘Méthode naturelle’, and Emile Coste, a major at Joinville school who was a resolute supporter of Ling’s method; then within Joinville school, where, from 1905, Georges Demeny, renowned physiologist, tried to impose his French method ‘Eclectique’. The three protagonists would use arguments focused on the rationality of the Swedish method to legitimize or criticize it. But this explicit stake based on the validity of the link between a scientific culture – anatomy and physiology – and a physical education method does not mask the implicit stake of real power.

HUNTSMAN TAKES STOCK

HUNTSMAN CORP. FOUNDER AND chairman Jon M. Huntsman has been naval officer, egg salesman, polystyrene foam egg carton developer, billionaire entrepreneur, cancer survivor (twice), leading philanthropist, staffer in the Nixon White House, fishing buddy of Vice President Dick Cheney, author, iconoclast, father of nine (including the governor of Utah), and grandfather of 54. One thing that Huntsman, 68, has not been is retired. When he sat down with C&EN for an interview in his Salt Lake City offices last month, he excused himself to consult with colleagues. Minutes later, he bounded back into the room declaring he had just charted out the next decade of his company's history on the back of an envelope. He even teased C&EN with a quick glance at his scribbling but withdrew it before any useful perusal could be made. Officers at many companies might have used such an interruption to end the interview. Huntsman ...

Deutsche Marinen im Wandel: Vom Symbol nationaler Einheit zum Instrument internationaler Sicherheit (review)

Reviewed by: Deutsche Marinen im Wandel: Vom Symbol nationaler Einheit zum Instrument internationaler Sicherheit Keith W. Bird Deutsche Marinen im Wandel: Vom Symbol nationaler Einheit zum Instrument internationaler Sicherheit. Edited by Werner Rahn. Vol. 63, Beiträge zur Militärgeschichte (Militärgeschichtlichen Forschungsamt) Munich: R. Oldenbourg Verlag, 2005. ISBN 3-486-57674-7. Pp. ix, 738. Euro 49.80. The richness of current German naval historiography is fully evident in this collection of thirty essays published by the Military History Research Office (MGFA) in Potsdam, edited by the former head of the MGFA, Werner Rahn. Written primarily by German authors, only eight of the essays are new; the others were previously published, but updated in part for this publication. Beginning with a foreword by the Inspekteur der Marine, Vice Admiral Lutz Feldt, and a dedication to the retiring chief of the MGFA, Jörg Duppler, this book celebrates the role of the German navy from its beginning as a symbol of national unity (1848) to its role as an instrument of international security in the twenty-first century (its subtitle). The essays document the historical roots of the German navy beginning with the Middle Ages, the founding of the "first" German fleet in 1848 (celebrated as the official anniversary of the navy today), the era of the two World Wars, the Cold War, the unification of the two German states and the role of the renamed (1990) Deutsche Marine's role in the world 1991–2004. The concluding essay is Rahn's "Twelve Theses" on the development of the navy in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, which provides a framework of the major themes of each period of German naval history. The fact that the majority of the authors are active or retired German naval officers reflects the importance of naval history in the education and training of the naval officer corps. The role of history as the "bearer of tradition" and as a vehicle for instilling "enthusiasm and responsibility for the soldierly profession" gives this volume a flavor of a more general (and selective) introduction to the history of the navy than the "unity of focus" that characterized the MGFA's 1972 study of the debate over the domestic and foreign policy implications of fleet-building (Marine und Marinepolitik im kaiserliche Deutschland 1871–1914). In spite of its scope, however, this collection does not ignore a critical confrontation with the navy's two attempts to become a maritime power in the Wilhelmian and Nazi eras as the inclusion of thirteen contributions to the period of the two World Wars demonstrates, especially those of Gerhard Schreiber (the continuity of naval leadership between 1897 and 1945), Michael Salewski (the ideology and reality of the maritime Third Reich) and Herbert Kraus (Admiral Karl Dönitz). Nevertheless, its subtitle suggests a more politically acceptable "continuity thesis" connecting the democratic ideals of the mid-nineteenth-century Bundesflotte to today's Deutsche Marine than the leaders of the Imperial Navy or Kriegsmarine would have acknowledged. Given the extensive historiographical debate over the last 30 years concerning the aims of German navalism (see this author's review essay "The Tirpitz Legacy" in the July 2005 JMH), there also seem to be some notable [End Page 245] omissions. The two essays by Günter Moltmann and Bernard Kroener evaluating the 1848 fleet ambitions overlook the expansionist nature of the Frankfurt Parliament's naval aims and other "continuity" themes raised in earlier studies such as Günter Wollstein's 1977 Das "Grossdeutschland" der Paulskirche or Wolfgang Petter's 1982 "Programmierter Untergang" in the MGFA's 1982 Militärgeschichte. This reviewer would also have expected Holger Herwig to be included for his critical observations on the social and political views of the Kaiser's naval officers instead of his essay on the influence of Mahan. The welcome inclusion of Rolf Hobson provides the latest scholarship into the origins of Tirpitz's sea power ideology but also raises new questions about whether domestic politics played a role in Tirpitz's fleet building as opposed to his "ideology of sea power" and the arguments over whether Germany's navalism was "unique." Within the limitations of this type of anthology, there is...

Moral Behavior and Transformational Leadership in Norwegian Naval Cadets

This study explores the relation between indicators of moral behavior and peer ratings of leadership behavior in Norwegian naval officer cadets (N = 172). Moral reasoning (Rest, Narvaez, Bebeau, & Thoma, 1999b) and moral identity (Aquino & Reed, 2002) were used as predictor variables, and peer rating of leadership behavior (Bass & Avolio, 1995) was used as the primary outcome measure. The results indicated that postconventional moral reasoning and moral identity were positively correlated with transactional and transformational leadership behavior, and they were negatively correlated with passive–avoidant leadership behavior. A stepwise hierarchical regression analysis revealed that indicators of moral behavior explained 10% to 14% of the variance in passive–avoidant, transactional, and transformational leader behavior. Furthermore, indicators of moral behavior emerged as significant predictor variables for the transformational facets of idealized influence (17%), inspirational motivation (12%), and individualized consideration (16%). Finally, indicators of moral behavior also predicted the transactional facet of contingent reward (11%), the passive–avoidant facets of management-by-exception–passive (8%), and laissez-faire (9%). Taken together these data indicate that individual differences in moral reasoning and moral identity significantly affect leadership behavior, and may have implications for training and selection of military personnel.

Jane Austen and the Gentrification of Commerce

In fifth chapter of Persuasion (1817), Jane Austen's narrator describes desolation of heroine Anne Elliot as Anne contemplates impending departure from family's ancestral home in Somersetshire countryside. The move, to smaller rented quarters in city of Bath, is a sad one. In language that has come to haunt criticism of novel, narrator observes: Anne, though dreading possible heats of September in all white glare of Bath, and grieving to forego all influence so sweet and so sad of autumnal months in country, did not think that, every thing considered, she wished to remain (23). The heroine's mood is as mercurial as it is doleful in span of a sentence moving between dread, regret and resignation. Yet what has always struck critics is way Somersetshire scenery seems to function here, and elsewhere, as a kind of objective correlative for not only Anne's but also Austen's mood. Autumnal is word used to describe Persuasion, last novel Austen completed before death and work that critics often call most personal. There is no need to rehearse reasons why this critical commonplace, linking Anne's autumn with Austen's, is teeming with fallacies a judgment Claudia Johnson rendered some time ago.1 Rather, question that must be asked is: what does perceived autumnal mood of novel have to do with its supposed critique of aristocratic authority? The question asks us to consider relationship between novel's political and personal dimensions, and it also requires that we negotiate a more complex politics than is often assumed. For once one looks into it, regret Anne expresses appears to be related to heroine's of degradation in family's social position, a feeling of injured pride articulated moment Anne crosses threshold of apartment in Bath. Though she acknowledges that new home was undoubtedly best in Camden-place, she sigh[s] that her father should feel no degradation in his change; should see nothing to regret in duties and dignity of resident land-holder (90-91). Such sentiments are commonly expressed in Austen's fiction, but what is their role in a novel whose other distinguishing feature is its attack on aristocratic prerogative? Most attempts at historicizing Persuasion focus on novel's exaltation of Captain Wentworth, a naval officer and man of sense whose worth trumps claims of lineage (167). The novel's hero has even acquired what we might call meta-heroic status within Austen criticism. A typical commentator singles out Wentworth as the only Jane Austen hero who lifts a finger to better his