Nature-based Solutions Research Articles

Potential drivers of urban green space availability in Latin American cities

AbstractUrban green spaces play a critical role in regulating air temperature, reducing air pollution and enhancing people’s well being. Yet, existing data and research on potential drivers of urban green space availability in Latin America are limited. Here, focusing on 371 large cities in 11 countries in Latin America, we described the total and per capita variability of urban green space, its spatial configuration and green urban parks across the categories of cities’ natural, built and socioeconomic environments. We tested the relative importance of geographic (climate) versus city-level built environment (population, population density, street intersection density) and socioeconomic (city gross domestic product per capita, unemployment, education) drivers in explaining urban green space availability. We found a high level of heterogeneity in green space quantity across cities and across categories of cities’ environments. Relative to other city factors, climate zone had the largest influence in explaining the quantity of green space, whereas education, street intersection density and population density were the most important drivers of urban park availability. The significance of climate for green space availability, combined with the inequitable quantity of green space, indicates that cities have differing capacities to implement nature-based solutions for heat mitigation and health promotion.

The 3rd Hutchinson lecture: numerical modelling of forests with uprooting as a nature-based solution to mitigate flow-type landslides

AbstractTo protect human lives and infrastructure in mountainous regions from flow-type landslides, engineered countermeasures, such as rigid and flexible barriers, are installed along predicted flow paths. Over recent years, research efforts in physical and numerical modelling have helped advance the understanding of impact mechanisms involved and enabled the optimization of the design of engineered solutions. With the advent of sustainable engineering, attention has shifted towards the use and development of nature-based solutions to impede flow-type landslides. A simple nature-based solution is to consider the effects of forests on the mobility of flow-type landslides. However, to leverage forests, the complex flow-stem interactions and effects of uprooting need to be captured. In this paper, details and results of a new GPU-empowered MPM-LSDEM numerical solver that simulates the effects of flows through tree stems that can uproot are presented along with systematic evaluation of the solver. Simulations of flow-forest interaction with and without uprooting show that forests have profound effects on flow forest interaction. For dense forests, uprooted stems can push flow material to enhance its runout distance. Additionally, uprooted stems tend to concentrate near the front of the flows even if they were evenly distributed throughout the model forest at the beginning. The impact force exerted by a stem can be considered concentrated loading and can damage barriers along the flow path. Taken together, hazard assessment tools that can model the effects of uprooting are crucial to close predictions of hazard extent (i.e., runout distance) and the design of physical countermeasures such as barriers.

Seven Years of Monitoring the Development of an Oyster Reef Living Shoreline

The implementation of nature-based solutions (NbS), including living shorelines, to mitigate estuarine habitat loss is increasing at a pace exceeding the evaluation of their long-term success. Constructed oyster reefs (CORs) made of shell, concrete, stone, and other materials are one living shoreline tactic that is widely utilized, yet few studies have been conducted to understand the development of CORs within the context of both physical and ecological parameters over longer time scales (4 + years). A COR-based living shoreline project at the Gandy’s Beach Preserve (GBP) in Delaware Bay, NJ, USA, had dual goals of coastal protection and habitat provisioning, which prompted the development of a goal-driven monitoring framework to track project objectives. Methods were developed to quantify the following multi-disciplinary metrics over 7 years: elevations of CORs, waves (height, period, and direction), shoreline elevations, change in extent of vegetation patches, oyster density and size, nekton richness and community composition, and horseshoe crab impingement. The CORs met most of their habitat provisioning objectives as they were colonized by a multi-generational population of shellfish and created habitat for nekton, while posing negligible hazards to horseshoe crabs. However, none of the coastal protection objectives was fully achieved including material stability, wave attenuation, and sediment elevation increase. Results highlight the value of longer-term monitoring to understand performance and the need to match the scale and type of NbS tactic(s) with both the scale of the landscape and the site-specific hydrodynamic conditions to meet project goals.

Barn Owls as a Nature-Based Solution for Pest Control: A Multinational Initiative Around the Mediterranean and Other Regions

Pest rodents cause extensive damage to crops worldwide. Up to 40% of global crop production is lost annually to pests and diseases, with rodents accounting for 15–30% of this loss amounting to billions of dollars each year. The current method of controlling rodent populations involves the extensive use of chemical rodenticides. While effective in the short term, these chemicals pose serious environmental and health risks, leading to secondary poisoning of non-target species and other long-term negative ecological consequences, underscoring the need to adopt more sustainable pest-control measures. Nature-Based Solutions (NbSs), on the other hand, are increasingly recognized for addressing environmental challenges such as climate change, biodiversity loss, and sustainable development, and they include actions that protect, sustainably manage, and restore ecosystems. In this context, Barn Owls (Tyto alba) are highly effective as a natural pest-rodent control agents in agro-ecosystems. The species has a wide distribution and adaptability to various environments, and its diet consists predominantly of small mammals, with rodents making up from 50–60% up to even 90–95% of the diet according to different geographical regions. Each Barn Owl family can consume thousands of rodents annually, creating a high potential to reduce crop damage and infestations. Deploying nest boxes in agricultural areas can significantly increase Barn Owl populations, ensuring continuous and effective rodent control. Limitations of this solution must also be taken into consideration such as predation on rodents and small mammals that are not pests, and possible competition with other nocturnal birds of prey. Ιn the current paper, we aim to introduce the concept of owls as a NbS for pest rodent control and outline the main challenges, pitfalls, advantages, and disadvantages of implementing this solution in a new geographical region, and all the necessary in-between steps (scientific, societal, administrative, educational) that have to be followed for a successful implementation. So far, several countries have successfully implemented Barn Owl nest box schemes, with Israel and Cyprus achieving reduction in the use of pesticides by 45% and 58%, respectively, whereas the project is spreading to other Mediterranean countries (Jordan, Palestine Authority, Greece, Morocco, Spain), in palm plantations in Malaysia and USA, and in the vineyards of Napa Valley in California. The success of Barn Owl nest box programs relies on integrating scientific research, societal needs, supportive policy frameworks, and education. Barn Owl nest box programs are both bottom-up and top-down initiatives, in need of the participation of farmers and local communities to establish and deploy the Barn Owl solution. Continuous research is also necessary to explore systematically Barn owl trophic ecology, foraging and breeding ecology, interactions with agricultural landscape, and land uses in temporal and spatial scales, and challenges such as habitat suitability, availability of nesting sites, and regional ecological conditions must also be addressed.

A Framework for Upgrading Contaminated Urban Land and Soil by Nature-Based Solutions: Demonstration with a Swedish Case

To move towards a circular economy and to meet the upcoming EU soil health legislation, both contaminated land and contaminated soil should be acknowledged as fragile and valuable resources to be restored and recycled to provide essential ecosystem services to humans. Underused, often contaminated land can be returned to beneficial use as urban greenspace (UGS) with the help of gentle remediation options (GROs). GROs are plant-, fungi-, bacteria-, and soil amendments-based risk management mechanisms that can also simultaneously improve soil functions and the provision of ecosystem services. This study (i) presents a framework including tools and methods for exploring opportunities for transforming brownfields to UGS using GROs to deal with soil contamination, (ii) demonstrates its application for a case study site in Gothenburg, Sweden, and (iii) presents stakeholders’ views on the suggested framework. This framework can support the transition of brownfields to UGS while recycling both land and soil and increasing the market value of the site and its surroundings. Stakeholders found the suggested framework useful but identified some challenges for its practical implementation, mainly associated with financial aspects and the existing practice and level of knowledge. Stakeholders also identified the need for additional practical tools to (a) make predictions about the time required for GROs to reach acceptable risk levels, (b) monetize non-market benefits such as ecosystem services for communicating benefits to decision-makers, and (c) provide support for plant and soil amendment selection for various GROs and contaminants.

Vulnerability of kelp, Ecklonia radiata, to persistent nitrogen pollution and coastal darkening

Coastal darkening is expected to have pervasive impacts on benthic primary producers. However, the effects of nitrogen enrichment, an often-co-occurring stressor, on benthic primary producers and their functions is less clear. This study investigates the interactive effects of coastal darkening and nitrogenous eutrophication, including nitrogen source (NH4+ vs. NO3−), on the function of the kelp Ecklonia radiata. First, an in-situ experiment was used to assess the differential impacts of NH4+ and NO3− pulse enrichment on the photosynthetic performance and pH modulation capacity of E. radiata. Second, a laboratory experiment was used to assess the longer-term impacts of nitrogen enrichment under low-light conditions mimicking coastal darkening on service provisioning, including photosynthetic performance, pH modulation, nutrient uptake and growth. While pulse nitrogen enrichment had no impacts on the photosynthetic performance of E. radiata in-situ, persistent exposure to either NH4+ or NO3− acted as a stressor to sporophytes as indicated by elevated rates of dark respiration and lamina erosion and reduced photosynthetic efficiency and growth rates. Furthermore, low-light conditions elicited reduced photosynthetic capacity at saturating irradiance, which extended to a reduction in the extent of pH modulation, and significantly increased lamina erosion. While the two stressors appeared to act on distinct parameters, ultimately, both darkening and eutrophication directly reduced net primary production, especially when in combination. These results demonstrate the negative interactive effects of coastal darkening and eutrophication on E. radiata function, while suggesting a vulnerability of E. radiata to even moderate levels of persistent nitrogen enrichment. This vulnerability highlights the need to consider environmental conditions during kelp conservation and restoration, and when attempting to valorise kelp ecophysiology for nature-based solutions.

Evaluating the impact of nature-based solutions on the provision of water-related and water-dependant ecosystem services

Water scarcity is a pressing issue in the Mediterranean region, exacerbated by overuse of resources for agriculture and the impacts of climate change. Addressing this challenge requires improved water cycle management and the adoption of Nature-based Solutions (NbS) to enhance infrastructure efficiency and sustainability. With the aim of promoting the implementation and assessment of NbS, we have developed a monitoring framework that integrates the assessment of ecological, socio-economic and cultural aspects under the umbrella of the IUCN Global Standard for NbS. A list of Key Performance Indicators (KPIs) was selected following standard methodologies. We have applied the framework to five case studies in the Mediterranean region to evaluate its efficiency to assess NbS tailored to local challenges and contexts. As part of the monitoring framework, we used the IUCN self-assessment tool for the Global Standard for NbS, demonstrating adherence of 50–75 % across all case studies. Common KPIs were identified, streamlining monitoring efforts and providing guidance from the design phase onwards. Our monitoring framework offers a comprehensive approach to evaluating NbS interventions, ensuring alignment with global standards and enhancing resilience in water management. By integrating the IUCN Global Standard, it provides robust guidance for future execution, contributing to sustainable water resource management in the Mediterranean and beyond.

Stormwater treatment in constrained urban spaces through a hybrid Sequential Sedimentation Biofiltration System

Urban areas face increasing pressures on water resources, necessitating innovative approaches to climate adaptation and water quality management. Nature-based Solutions (NbS) offer a sustainable pathway, yet their integration with existing infrastructure in urban settings remains occasional. This study presents a novel hybrid system—Sequential Sedimentation Biofiltration System (SSBS)—designed for stormwater treatment within confined urban spaces. The system was adjusted to the existing stormwater infrastructure by integrating a sedimentation tank (SED), three Permeable Reactive Barriers (PRBs), and a biofiltration zone (BIO). The SSBS was evaluated for its efficiency in removing nutrients and sediments, focusing on the performance of PRBs. Our findings showed limited sediment removal in SED and PRBs due to spatial constraints and a high Hydraulic Loading Rate (HLR = 1.31 m/d), achieving an average of 13.6% Total Suspended Solids (TSS) removal. However, PRBs demonstrated effective removal of ammonium (43.4%) and phosphate (59.3%), potentially due to sorption and biofilm activity, with dominant microbial communities including Proteobacteria, Bacteroidetes, and nutrient-transforming taxa such as Nitrospirae. Interestingly, PRBs increased nitrite levels (57.1%) but did not significantly impact nitrate, chloride, or TSS. The BIO zone further enhanced nutrient retention (56% PO4–P) and served as a sink for TSS (52%). This study underscores the potential for integrating traditional urban infrastructure with NbS in a sequential stormwater treatment system, demonstrating its effectiveness in space-constrained urban environments.

Cost-benefit and equity analysis of Nature-based Solutions in Haiti, India, Indonesia and Uganda

Cost-benefit and equity analysis of Nature-based Solutions in Haiti, India, Indonesia and Uganda

Natural-based solutions to mitigate dietary microplastics side effects in fish

Dietary microplastics (MPs) can be consumed by fish, crossing through the gastrointestinal tract. MPs smaller than 20 μm can easily translocate to other organs, such as liver, commonly triggering oxidative stress in fish. Given the current unlikelihood of their short-term elimination, strategies to mitigate MPs-related issues on fish are of considerable interest to the scientific community. In the present study, to reduce both the dietary MPs-induced oxidative stress and the accumulation of MPs, the effectiveness of microencapsulated astaxanthin (ASX) was evaluated in zebrafish (Danio rerio). Specifically, zebrafish were reared from larvae to adults (6 months) and fed diets containing MPs different in range-size (polymer A: 1-5 μm; polymer B: 40-47 μm) at different concentrations (50 or 500 mg/kg). After this period, fish from each experimental group were divided in two sub-groups that were fed, for an additional month, with the previous diets or with the same diets containing implemented with microencapsulated ASX (7 g /kg), respectively. Results showed that microencapsulated ASX was able to counteract the negative effects caused by MPs different in size. Particularly, in zebrafish fed diets containing polymer B microbeads, microencapsulated astaxanthin was able to restore the intestinal epithelium, affected by the abrasive role of MPs during gut transit. Differently, in zebrafish fed diets containing polymer A microbeads, absorbed at intestinal level and translocated mainly to the liver, the microencapsulated ASX decreased the oxidative stress response and reduced the MPs accumulation in target organs due to the antioxidant and the coagulant properties of the ASX and microcapsules wall, respectively. Taken together, the results highlighted that the aquafeeds’ implementation with microencapsulated astaxanthin is a prospective tool to prevent MPs-related issues in fish.

A GIS-Based Framework to Analyze the Behavior of Urban Greenery During Heatwaves Using Satellite Data

This work proposes a new unsupervised method to evaluate the behavior of urban green areas in the presence of heatwave scenarios by analyzing three indices extracted from satellite data: the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI), the Normalized Difference Moisture Index (NDMI), and Land Surface Temperature (LST). The aim of this research is to analyze the behavior of urban vegetation types during heatwaves through the analysis of these three indices. To evaluate how these indices characterize urban green areas during heatwaves, an unsupervised classification method of the three indices is proposed that uses the Elbow method to determine the optimal number of classes and the Jenks classification algorithm. Each class is assigned a Gaussian fuzzy set and the green urban areas are classified using zonal statistics operators. The membership degree of the corresponding fuzzy set is calculated to assess the reliability of the classification. Finally, for each type of greenery, the frequencies of types of green areas belonging to NDVI, NDMI, and LST classes are analyzed to evaluate their behavior during heatwaves. The framework was tested in an urban area consisting of the city of Naples (Italy). The results show that some types of greenery, such as deciduous forests and olive groves, are more efficient, in terms of health status and cooling effect, than other types of urban green areas during heatwaves; they are classified with NDVI and NDMI values of mainly High and Medium High, and maximum LST values of Medium Low. Conversely, uncultivated areas show critical behaviors during heatwaves; they are classified with maximum NDVI and NDMI values of Medium Low and maximum LST values of Medium High. The research results represent a support to urban planners and local municipalities in designing effective strategies and nature-based solutions to deal with heat waves in urban settlements.

IMPLEMENTING FLOOD-RESISTANT DESIGN STRATEGIES IN COASTAL REGIONS

This systematic review synthesizes findings from 85 articles to examine flood-resistant design strategies in coastal regions, emphasizing an integrated approach that combines traditional engineering solutions, nature-based strategies, green infrastructure, adaptive design, and predictive modeling. The review identifies a continuing reliance on engineered defenses, such as seawalls and automated floodgates, which have proven effective but are limited in addressing the escalating impact of climate change. Findings highlight the growing importance of nature-based solutions—wetlands, mangroves, and coral reefs—that not only mitigate flood risks but also enhance biodiversity and long-term sustainability. Green infrastructure, including permeable pavements and rain gardens, emerges as a valuable urban solution, although it faces implementation challenges in densely populated areas. The integration of predictive modeling and real-time data is transforming flood management by enabling proactive and adaptive responses, though these technologies remain financially inaccessible for many regions. Comparative analysis underscores that flood-resilient design is highly context-dependent, with successful practices varying based on local geography, resources, and socio-economic factors. This review concludes that future flood-resilient infrastructure must prioritize adaptable, sustainable, and region-specific solutions, highlighting the need for cross-disciplinary collaboration and continued policy support to enhance flood resilience and protect vulnerable coastal communities against the effects of climate change.

A multi-criteria decision-making model for sustainable selection of coastal protection structures

Although nature-based and hybrid (i.e., a combination of hard and nature-based) solutions provide well-documented benefits to both the environment and people living nearby, they cannot be implemented in all coastal zones. Thus, the selection process of coastal protection structures (CPSs) requires an in-depth and comprehensible assessment with an effective and robust decision-support framework. Existing frameworks in the literature, however, do not focus on the selection of nature-based solutions and environmental and social factors were not considered thoroughly in these frameworks. In this respect, this research aims to develop a decision-support model that guides decision-makers in selecting the most appropriate and sustainable CPSs. The framework was designed in a way that includes a variety of environmental and social factors along with economic and technical aspects. Then, fuzzy AHP and TOPSIS analyses were conducted to determine the relative importance of the selection factors and to select the most appropriate CPS. Factors such as sediment dynamics, geotechnical issues, construction cost, transportation and navigation effects, and technological know-how were among the top-rated factors. TOPSIS analysis results revealed that mangrove forests and artificial reefs were the top two most sustainable CPSs. The proposed framework can minimize the social and environmental impacts of CPSs and expedite the green transition in the coastal environment.

Nature-based solutions: estuarine restoration for water quality, seagrass and ecological improvement

Natural ecosystems are marked by complex interconnections and a high degree of resilience and adaptability. Historically many of these areas have been viewed as an obstacle to be cut down, channelized and drained for development. Such development in turn requires catchment based local stormwater management systems that do not scale with climate change and focus on only one element such as flood control or water quality. These traditional, localized approaches to water fail to take advantage of the interconnected benefits of nature-based systems and approaches to water management. These benefits include ecological uplift, enhanced habitat, eco-tourism, recreation, carbon sequestration and climate change resilience. There is a notable shift towards utilizing nature-based solutions to work with development and water management as evidenced by emerging government policy, funding and permitting requirements as well as the number of examples of recent successful projects. This paper examines one such project, a new tidal connection through the SR 60/Courtney Campbell Causeway in an estuarine area of Old Tampa Bay, Florida, United States. The connection was established to improve water quality in an area north of the causeway isolated by highway development and infill. Based on recent monitoring data, the project significantly improved water quality and ecological conditions conducive to seagrass recovery and increased biodiversity.

Green Connections: Adaptive, Integrated, and Nature-Based Solutions for Urban Historic Centres

Choosing adaptation and mitigation actions, through nature-based solutions, fosters the ecological transition process, which is necessary to face the challenges of climate change. However, these interventions are often discontinuous and disconnected, especially within dense and delicate urban fabrics such as historic centres. The research proposes a multi-scalar methodological approach aimed at defining an integrated design tool to improve the microclimatic well-being, accessibility and aesthetic quality of open spaces located in consolidated urban environments. Through the synergy between natural, technological and social components, the aim is to create replicable minimum intervention units designed to foster democratic and ecosystemic connections.

Enhancing Climate Resiliency Through Improving Ecosystem Services in Shoreline Municipalities – Lessons from Canada

The accelerated impacts of climate change in waterfront areas and the proven inefficacy of the aging hardened shoreline infrastructure have driven shoreline management practices to evolve toward the enhancement of ecosystem services at the land-water interface. Gaining momentum as an adaptive approach in regenerative projects, living shorelines are comprised of natural ecosystem components used in combination or in place of traditional hard engineering methods to provide coastal protective services and erosion mitigation. The success of living shorelines in protecting shoreline property and ecosystem integrity varies based on the biogeomorphology and hydrology of the region and is also heavily reliant on social acceptance of the chosen approach and best practice for implementation. The relatively lower lifecycle cost and associated co-benefits of living shorelines have well positioned them as a promising alternative approach in theory. There are, however, gaps in regional long-term datasets and evidence-based guidelines. This research provides an overview of the underlying geopolitical readiness for integrating nature-based solutions in climate adaptation strategies within shoreline municipalities based on a comprehensive literature review complimented by expert interviews. The synthesized data can inform decisions for minimizing the destructive effects of traditional shoreline erosion prevention approaches and encourage successful implementation of solutions that offer ecological, health, social, and economic benefits.

Harnessing nature-based solutions for economic recovery: A systematic review

Nature-based solutions (NbS) involve working with nature to address societal challenges in ways that benefit communities and biodiversity locally. However, their role supporting economic recovery from crises, such as those arising from conflicts or pandemics remains underexplored. To address this knowledge gap, we conducted a systematic review of 66 reviews on the economic impact of nature-based interventions. Most demonstrated positive outcomes for income and employment, though those with critical appraisal of underlying studies reported more mixed outcomes. These varied results were influenced by factors such as the balance between short-term and long-term gains, market conditions, regional effects, reliance on subsidies, and discrepancies between expected and actual economic benefits. National-scale economic growth assessments were scarce. Half of the cases featured nature-based food production investments, with much evidence from sub-Saharan Africa, East Asia and the Pacific. The few reviews comparing NbS with alternatives found that NbS delivered equal or better economic outcomes. NbS also provided broader benefits like food and water security, flood protection and community empowerment. We identified key factors influencing the delivery of benefits and trade-offs, finding that NbS must adhere to best practice standards, with community involvement being critical for equitable outcomes. Well-designed NbS can create diverse job opportunities at different skill levels, diversify income, and improve resilience, offering a rapid, flexible response to economic shocks that can be targeted at deprived communities. By integrating traditional, local and scientific knowledge, NbS can enable eco-innovation, and drive the transition to a clean and efficient circular economy, with high economic multipliers spreading benefits throughout economies. The evidence underscores the need to incorporate NbS in investment programs to concurrently address economic, environmental, and societal challenges. However, improved monitoring of economic, social and ecological outcomes and the development of comprehensive accounting systems are needed to better track public and private investments in NbS.

Exposome, oxidative stress and inflammation in multiple sclerosis: the EXPOSITION study protocol

Abstract Background The functional exposome approach examines the relationship between biological effects (internal exposome) and the sum of environmental exposures (external exposome). Multiple sclerosis (MS) is characterized by selective demyelination and acute inflammation; miRNAs and microbiota are emerging in the pathogenesis as inflammation and oxidative stress biomarkers. The EXPOSITION study protocol has been designed to study such biomarkers variation in response to the external exposome (air pollution, urbanization, lifestyles) in people with MS (pwMS). Methods EXPOSITION is a cross-sectional observational study collecting a sample of 200 pwMS residing in Lombardy, Northern Italy. Sample size is based on the prediction of differential expression of candidate miRNAs through bioinformatic analyses. All participants will be investigated for social, demographic and clinical data as well as general and specific external exposome factors. The internal exposome factors will be collected for each participant from blood and stool samples, as well as from nasal swabs. Exposome clustering and correlation statistical techniques will be applied and variation of miRNA and microbiota will be tested in association with the variation of the external exposome in urban and extra-urban environments. Results and conclusions The expected results will help pwMS and researchers understanding which biomarkers and which components of the external exposome are associated to oxidative stress and inflammation, to improve precision medicine and contrast disease progression. The relationship between urban exposome and biodiversity is an important dimension in the study of environmental impact on human health. This study may provide preliminary data to assess which nature-based solutions are suitable for enhancing the biodiversity of urban areas. Key messages • The functional exposome approach could be used to link environmental risk factors and disease biomarkers using the right methology. • EXPOSITION will quantify the variation of miRNA and microbiota in association with the variation of external exposome, in urban and extra-urban environments.

Novi Sad cultural stations as healthy buildings for wellbeing concept

Abstract Creating spaces for all citizens through the cultural stations project within the Novi Sad - European Capital of Culture 2022 has set an example of applying the concept of well-being which involves integrating various elements that support physical, mental, and social health. Cultural stations project in the city of Novi Sad is a concept supporting cultural programming, healthy food options, mental health support, accessibility and inclusivity, as well as community engagement. Social interaction in urban areas is vital for mental and emotional well-being, fostering a sense of belonging and community, diverse cultural programming that appeals to different groups, cultural activities such as art exhibitions, performances, workshops, and community events provide opportunities for creativity, learning, and social engagement, enhancing overall well-being. Access to cultural stations, spending time there has been linked to reduced stress, improved mood, and increased feelings of well-being within 7 neighborhoods of Novi Sad. This includes providing barrier-free access, accommodations for individuals with disabilities, and programming that is inclusive and welcoming to everyone. Participation of the local community in the design, programming, and management of cultural stations is also important. By integrating these principles into the design, programming, and management of cultural stations, Novi Sad creates vibrant, inclusive, and healthy spaces that contribute to the overall well-being of its residents and visitors. Cultural stations are located in different parts of the city in order to provide accessibility to all citizens. Their arrangement is in accordance with the recommendations of green construction and restoration, and the interior and surroundings foster respect for nature and nature-based solutions. Also, they are developing different content in line with culture, but also science, health and smart solutions as a tool for well-being.

Defaunation impacts on the carbon balance of tropical forests.

The urgent need to mitigate and adapt to climate change necessitates a comprehensive understanding of carbon cycling dynamics. Traditionally, global carbon cycle models have focused on vegetation, but recent research suggests that animals can play a significant role in carbon dynamics under some circumstances, potentially enhancing the effectiveness of nature-based solutions to mitigate climate change. However, links between animals, plants, and carbon remain unclear. We explored the complex interactions between defaunation and ecosystem carbon in Earth's most biodiverse and carbon-rich biome, tropical rainforests. Defaunation can change patterns of seed dispersal, granivory, and herbivory in ways that alter tree species composition and, therefore, forest carbon above- and belowground. Most studies we reviewed show that defaunation reduces carbon storage 0-26% in the Neo- and Afrotropics, primarily via population declines in large-seeded, animal-dispersed trees. However, Asian forests are not predicted to experience changes because their high-carbon trees are wind dispersed. Extrapolating these local effects to entire ecosystems implies losses of ∼1.6 Pg CO2 equivalent across the Brazilian Atlantic Forest and 4-9.2 Pg across the Amazon over 100 years and of ∼14.7-26.3 Pg across the Congo basin over 250 years. In addition to being hard to quantify with precision, the effects of defaunation on ecosystem carbon are highly context dependent; outcomes varied based on the balance between antagonist and mutualist species interactions, abiotic conditions, human pressure, and numerous other factors. A combination of experiments, large-scale comparative studies, and mechanistic models could help disentangle the effects of defaunation from other anthropogenic forces in the face of the incredible complexity of tropical forest systems. Overall, our synthesis emphasizes the importance of-and inconsistent results when-integrating animal dynamics into carbon cycle models, which is crucial for developing climate change mitigation strategies and effective policies.