Natural Wax Research Articles

The effects of long-term exposure to ozokerite mainly consisting of an aliphatic series of hydrocarbons using F344 rats

Combined chronic toxicity and carcinogenicity studies of ozokerite (OZK), a natural wax substance used as a food additive for a gum base, were performed in male and female F344 rats. Dietary concentrations of 0%, 0.05%, 0.1% and 0.2% OZK were applied in a 52-week chronic toxicity study and 0%, 0.1% and 0.2% in a 104-week carcinogenicity study. In the chronic toxicity study, treatment with OZK caused a xenobiotic reaction against absorbed OZK, including formation of histiocytosis and granulomas with crystalline material in many organs in all of the treated males and females. Particularly in the liver, granulomatous inflammation was accompanied by hepatocellular vacuolation and changes in the serum biochemical parameters indicative of hepatic disorder. The number and area of glutathione S-transferase placental form (GST-P) positive foci were increased in all of the treated groups of both sexes, suggesting the proliferative effect of OZK. In the carcinogenicity study, the incidence of hepatocellular adenoma and the total tumor incidence in the liver of all of the treated males were significantly increased compared with the controls. In conclusion, long-term exposure to OZK caused systemic chronic inflammation due to a foreign body response. OZK was weakly carcinogenic in the liver of male F344 rats.

Prosthetic Application of Newly Experimental Modeling Wax with some Additives( Medical Grass Extract)

Aims of the study: preparation of a new experimental modeling wax from hard paraffin, beeswax, starch, and medical Grass Extract (olive oil) and study the linear thermal expansion and melting point properties of the prepared wax. Materials and Methods : The samples were prepared ( 30 samples) by mixing Iraqi natural waxes (hard paraffin and beeswax) with additives (starch and olive oil) using spe-cial percentages proportions determined according to this study and using mold prepared according to ADA specification No.24, and the melting range and thermal expansion of these samples measured then compared with commercial modeling wax (SHANGCHI). Results: The new experimental model-ing wax 1 ( 80% hard paraffin + 15% beeswax + 5% olive oil) have minimum and maximum melting point mean value (59.8 – 63.6 °c) near to control (commercial modeling wax) (58 -63.4 °c) and the new experimental modeling wax 2 (90% beeswax + 5% starch + 5% olive oil) have linear thermal expan-sion mean value (0.186%) near to control (SHANGCHI) (commercial modeling wax) (0.204%). Con-clusions : The addition of olive oil to new experimental modeling wax 1(80% hard paraffin + 15% beeswax + 5% olive oil) lead to increase the linear thermal expansion and reduce the melting point, and the addition of olive oil to new experimental modeling wax 2 (90% beeswax + 5% starch + 5% olive oil) lead to decrease thermal expansion and reduce melting point.

Tensile, flexural and torsional properties of chemically treated alfa, coir and bagasse reinforced polypropylene

Mechanical properties of alfa, coir and bagasse fibers reinforced polypropylene (PP) composites have been investigated. In order to improve the composite’s mechanical properties, fibers were alkali treated before compounding to remove natural waxes and other non cellulosic compounds. The mechanical properties of the composites obtained with these three fibers were found to be superior to those of the neat polymer. Addition of various amount of reinforcement fibers yielded noticeable increases in both tensile and flexural modulus as well as the torsion parameter. 56–75% increases in tensile modulus were observed by the use of alfa, coir and bagasse while the flexural modulus increased by 30–47% when compared to neat PP. An increase in torsion modulus is also observed when the fiber content exceeds a threshold level. A power law model was developed using an experimental data to calculate the torsion modulus of fiber-reinforced composites at various fiber loading and frequencies.

천연왁스를 이용한 화장품 첨가용 비타민 C의 코팅

Vitamin C or L-ascorbic acid, an essential nutrient for humans with antioxidative property, was coated with natural wax to be used as functional additives for cosmetics. Coating of vitamin C was performed using carnauba wax and olive wax in self-designed reaction chamber for 60 min. The yield of coated vitamin C with carnawuba wax and olive wax were up to 94.6 ± 1.2% and 82.5 ± 1.4%, respectively. The stability of the carnauba wax-coated vitamin C in the lotion was improved 17.8% than that of uncoated vitamin C during 30 day storage at 25℃. Color and the layer separation of the lotion added with the coated vitamin C showed better property than with the uncoated vitamin C. The coated vitamin C can be applied to cosmetic ingredients as a stable additive.

Effect of cotton pectin content and bioscouring on alkyl-dimethyl-benzyl-ammonium chloride adsorption

Previous research has shown that both the rate and the total amount of alkyl-dimethyl-benzyl-ammonium chloride (ADBAC) exhausted from a bulk solution of ADBAC are significantly greater for greige cotton nonwovens than cotton nonwovens that have been both scoured and bleached. The presence of pectin in greige cotton samples was offered as one of the possible explanations for this observed phenomenon. To elucidate the effect of pectin and cotton’s natural waxes on the adsorption of ADBAC on greige cotton nonwovens, low-weight greige nonwovens were bioscoured with a pectate lyase prior to being immersed in aqueous solutions of ADBAC. The eco-friendly scouring process was optimized for greige cotton nonwovens and the optimal process parameters were as follows: pH of 8.5, temperature of 55°C, and an incubation time of 90 minutes. Under these conditions, the amount of pectin removed from the fabrics was equivalent to that removed by traditional scouring and bleaching procedures. Pretreatment of greige cotton nonwovens with pectate lyase was found to significantly reduce the amount of ADBAC exhausted from the bulk solution. Through partial scouring via traditional and pectinase-based methods, the adsorption of ADBAC onto cotton nonwovens was found to be linearly dependent on the amount of pectin present in the fabric. Both waxes and pectin were found to play an important role in ADBAC adsorption; however, the observed effect of pectin was significantly greater than cotton’s natural waxes.

Characterization of Five Natural Resins and Waxes by Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC)

Thermal properties of 5 natural resin and wax samples (shellac, rosin, shellac wax, beeswax, Chinese insect wax) were examined by differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). The DSC melting and crystallization curves of the samples were presented in this paper. Three DSC parameters, To, Tf and ΔT (difference between To and Tf), were selected from each curve. Evaluation results of the parameters showed that they were statistically significant with individual excellent reproducibility. Information was provided by evaluation of changes among thermal absorption or release peaks of the curves in differentiating the five resins and waxes. It was demonstrated in this paper that DSC is rapid, convenient, reliable and accurate to qualitatively identify the resins and waxes mentioned above.

Preparation of High-Hardness Oxidized Wax

Paraffin wax and polyethylene wax were used as raw materials to prepare oxidized wax by catalytic oxidation. Then, a high hardness wax was prepared by calcified modification. The results showed that when the calcification reaction temperature was 120°C, the reaction time was 4 hr, the quantity of Ca(OH)2 was 3.0%, a modified wax was obtained. Its property (such as hardness) was close to natural hard wax (carnauba wax). The acid value was 3.20 mg(KOH)/g, the saponification value was 78.83 mg(KOH)/g, the needle penetration was 1.7 (0.1 mm), drop melting point was 86.9°C.

Optimization of Enzymatic Synthesis of Cetyl 2‐Ethylhexanoate by Novozym® 435

AbstractWaxes are esters obtained from long‐chain fatty acids and long‐chain alcohols which are biodegradable, biocompatible and nontoxic. Seafowl feather oil is a natural wax ester that exists on seafowl feathers. Cetyl 2‐ethylhexanoate is the major ingredient of seafowl feather oil. Cetyl 2‐ethylhexanoate is widely used in cosmetics as a base oil because of its lubricity, moisture retention and non‐toxic properties. An optimal production of cetyl 2‐ethylhexanoate by direct esterification of cetyl alcohol with 2‐ethylhexanoic acid was developed using an immobilized lipase (Novozym® 435) as a catalyst in n‐hexane. Response surface methodology (RSM) and 5‐level‐4‐factor central composite rotatable design (CCRD) were employed to evaluate the effects of reaction time, reaction temperature, substrate molar ratio, and enzyme amount on the yield of cetyl 2‐ethylhexanoate. The results show that reaction time, reaction temperature, substrate molar ratio, and enzyme amount have significant effects on the yield of the esterification reaction. On the basis of ridge‐max analysis, the optimum conditions were as follows: a reaction time of 2.65 days, a reaction temperature of 56.18 °C, a substrate molar ratio of 2.55:1, and an enzyme amount of 251.39%. The predicted and experimental values of molar conversion were 91.95 and 89.75 ± 1.06%, respectively.

Recrystallization of tubules from natural lotus (Nelumbo nucifera) wax on a Au(111) surface

We present here the first results on the self-assembly of tubules of natural wax from lotus leaves on a single crystal Au(111) surface. A comparison of the tubule growth on Au(111) to that on HOPG is discussed. Although the tubule formation on both Au(111) and HOPG takes place on an intermediate wax film which should mask the substrate properties, the tubule orientations differ. In contrast to a vertical tubule orientation on HOPG, the tubules lie flat on Au(111). Taking into account the physical properties of HOPG and Au(111), we put forward a hypothesis which can explain the different tubule orientations on both substrates.

A novel method for preparation of low-fouling membranes: Surface coating by extracted wax from leafy cabbage

The focus of the current research was changing the membrane surface characteristics to minimize fouling. In this study, the effect of membrane surface coating with natural wax in creating low-fouling property was investigated. The wax was extracted from cabbage ( Brassica oleracea) leaves and coated on the membrane surface. The adhesion of the wax was based on van der Waals forces between alkane chains of wax and PVDF polymer on the membrane surface. The whey flux and protein rejection of wax-coated membrane were improved compared to the virgin membrane. This indicates the generation of low-fouling property by wax on the membrane surface. In order to characterize the wax-coated membrane, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), X-ray diffraction (XRD) and contact angle measurements were employed. Moreover, the affecting parameters including wax concentration, heating temperature, heating time and water cleaning on antifouling performance of membrane were elucidated.

Influence of Warm-Mix Additives and Reduced Aging on the Rheology of Asphalt Binders with Different Natural Wax Contents

This paper presents the results of our study to investigate the influence of natural wax in asphalt binders, warm-mix asphalt (WMA) additives, and reduced short-term aging on viscosity, stiffness, susceptibility to permanent deformation, fracture resistance, and thermal cracking resistance of asphalt binders. We used two controls to differentiate between the influence of WMA additive and that of reduced aging on the rheology of asphalt binders. The asphalt binder used in a WMA undergoes reduced short-term aging and consequently has relatively reduced stiffness compared with the binder in a similar hot-mix asphalt (HMA). Results indicate that certain WMA additives compensate, whereas others aggravate the initial reduced stiffness of asphalt binders used in WMA. Short-term aged binders with high natural wax content demonstrated strong interactions with some of the WMA additives and increased susceptibility to permanent deformation. In most cases, pressure aging vessel (PAV) residues of binders with WMA addi...

Comparison based on field tests of three low-environmental-impact wood treatments

In order to promote the use of Pinus pinea L. wood within the Migliarino-San Rossore Nature Reserve (Pisa, central Italy), three low-environmental-impact wood treatments, supposed to enhance natural durability, were compared. Impregnations with an oil-based preservative and natural waxes and a wood thermal treatment were tested in the field in accordance with standards ENV 12037 and EN 252. The above-ground test revealed that: P. pinea sapwood is more durable than Pinus sylvestris sapwood; all the alternative treatments showed a low mean decay level; wax and oil treatments performed as well as the traditional copper-based preservative; the natural durability class of P. pinea will only be calculated upon the complete failure of all reference lap-joints. The main outcomes from the in-ground test were: All the tested treatments increased the durability of wood, and the protective effectiveness of alternative treatments was comparable to traditional copper-based ones, or even superior in the case of heated oil. Taking certain mechanical and aesthetic limitations into account, all the treatments were suitable for the promotion of the P. pinea wood commodity in use classes 3 and 4.

Scientific Basis of a Unique Formulation for Reducing Sunburn of Fruits

Sunburn, a major type of solar radiation injury, causes large economic losses of several fruits, vegetables, and ornamentals. Sunburn necrosis occurs in attached apple (Malus domestica Borkh.) when excess solar radiation is converted to heat energy and causes a high fruit surface temperature (FST). When the FST reaches ≈52 °C, thermal death of cells is induced and sunburn necrosis appears later. A second type of sunburn, sunburn browning, is caused by the combination of high FST (46 to 49 °C) and high solar radiation. Cell death is not induced, but several pigment changes occur and the apple peel typically turns yellow or brown. The objective of this study was to develop a unique technology for protection of apples from sunburn necrosis and sunburn browning. Natural waxes in the cuticle and pigments in the upper epidermis of apple, which reflect and absorb ultraviolet radiation, attenuate only part of the harmful ultraviolet radiation. I hypothesized that applying additional wax as a sprayable emulsion would augment natural waxes in the cuticle and that addition of reflective compounds to the wax emulsion would reduce the heat load on the fruit. Synthesis of a formulation of this composition would be unique for plants and would be akin to sunscreens used by humans that generally contain organic (chemical) compounds to absorb harmful ultraviolet radiation and inorganic (physical) compounds to scatter, block, and/or reflect solar radiation. Emulsified carnauba wax, a natural plant wax, decreased transmission of ultraviolet radiation; addition of emulsified, organically modified clay to the wax emulsion enhanced reflectivity. When combined into a sprayable formulation, the carnauba wax and organoclay emulsion was more effective in protecting apples from sunburn browning than from sunburn necrosis. Spraying the unique formulation on apple trees caused no phytotoxicity on either leaves or fruit and did not decrease leaf chlorophyll fluorescence or whole-tree gas exchange, indicating no effect on photosynthesis or transpiration of apple trees. The unique formulation is patented as a sunburn protectant for fruits and vegetables and is marketed in several countries as RAYNOX®.

Influence of natural additives and those synthesized by the Fischer-Tropsch method on the properties of petroleum bitumen and quality of floated asphalt

Introducing additives in BDUS 70/100 petroleum bitumen results in a high-quality binder for the preparation of floated asphalt with improved performance. Effective additives include amide waxes, natural waxes, high-molecular paraffins obtained from CO-hydrogen mixtures by the Fischer-Tropsch method, and also mixtures of high-molecular paraffins and polyethylene waxes.

Thermal Analysis of Four Insect Waxes Based on Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC)

For more wide development of natural wax applied in food additives industry, thermal characteristics of four insect waxes were analyzed by differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), compared with paraffin (an abiological wax) and canauba wax (a vegetal wax). It was indicated that melting point of the four insect waxes were varied at 90.42°C of coccerin as the highest, 70.34°C of beeswax as the lowest, and 86.56°C of insect white wax, 83.82°C of shellac wax. All of the four waxes were higher with the melting point than paraffin (63.32°C), and the coccerin's melting point was even higher than that of canauba wax (87.85°C). The melting enthalpy of insect waxes ranged at 168.1 to 203.2J/g, so did the crystallization enthalpy at 166.9 to 198.8J/g. Both melting and crystallization enthalpies were near to other waxes such as paraffin and canauba wax. It was showed that DSC was qualitatively and quantitatively available for thermal analysis of insect wax, and insect wax was good in thermal stability.

Evaluation of a Candelilla Wax-Based Edible Coating to Prolong the Shelf-Life Quality and Safety of Apples

Abstract: Problem statement: The apple by its nature as perishable food of climacteric type implies that even under refrigerated conditions, the fruit spoils quickly by its very nature of breathing and similarly are attacked by microorganisms of different types that make is the fruit spoil even faster so in the present investigation be worked with an edible coating to protect it from decomposition and contamination by phytopathogens microorganisms. Approach: This study reports the effect of the application of an edible coating elaborated with a natural wax extracted from Euphorbia antisyphilitica and containing 0.01% of a potent antioxidant, Ellagic Acid (EA), on the shelf life quality and safety of “Golden Delicious” apples. This new film extended and improved the quality of fresh apples. In a first experimental step, the edible coating was applied on apples and the characteristics evaluated were changes in the appearance, weight loss, total solids content and a sensorial evaluation was included. In a second experimental step, the capacity of protection of the edible coating was evaluated against three important phytopathogenic fungi (Colletrotrichum gloesporioides, Fusarium oxysporum and Penicillum expansum). Results: demonstrated that EA-based edible coating prevents apparent damages to the fruits. In general, the film showed better results in comparison with the control (apples without coating). The EA-based coating diminished in greater proportion the change of color, weight loss, total solids content and it was not perceived by the sensorial panel. Results of second experimental step, demonstrated the edible EA-based coating is an excellent antifungal barrier against all microorganisms tested. Conclusion: The application of this new edible film for apples extends their shelf life and elevates the antioxidant potential, as well as their nutritional quality.

Development of Leather Wax by Oxidized Paraffin Wax

A mass proportion paraffin and microcrystalline wax was adopted as raw material, and under certain conditions a catalyzed oxidation reaction took place, in which a sample with qualities and performance similar to that of natural carnauba wax was obtained. By using oxidation wax as experimental material and water as solvent, under the surfactants' action, after the reaction of emulsification, polishing and decontaminating wax for leather was prepared. Then some factor's effects on stability of emulsifying wax, such as emulsifier type, quantity, stirring speed, emulsifying time, and emulsifying temperature were discussed. The results show that emulsifying time was 20 ~ 30 < min, stirring speed was 800 r/min ~ 1,000 r/min, and the emulsifying temperature was 80 ~ 90°C. The wax for leather whose features is well-distributed, functioned well and at a low cost compared with natural carnauba wax was obtained.

GC/MS Analytical Procedure for the Characterization of Glycerolipids, Natural Waxes, Terpenoid Resins, Proteinaceous and Polysaccharide Materials in the Same Paint Microsample Avoiding Interferences from Inorganic Media

An innovative GC/MS procedure for the characterization of organic materials in samples from works of art was developed. It is based on a multistep chemical pretreatment of the samples based on the ammonia extraction of proteins and polysaccharide materials, in order to separate them from lipid and resinous materials. The extraction is then followed by the separation and purification of proteinaceous and polysaccharide materials before hydrolysis, based on the use of monolithic sorbent tip technology with a C4 stationary phase. Lipids and resins are saponified/salified separately. Three fractions are generated and analyzed separately by GC/MS, thus enabling a quantitative analysis to be performed on aldoses and uronic acids, amino acids, mono- and dicarboxylic aliphatic acids, to determine polysaccharide, proteinaceous, and glycerolipid materials and molecular pattern recognition for the natural resin and wax components. With this analytical procedure, for the first time, glycerolipids, natural waxes, and proteinaceous, resinous, and polysaccharide materials can be simultaneously characterized in the same microsample from painted works of art. This new analytical approach prevents any analytical difficulties arising when the sample is divided into several different aliquots to be chemically processed separately, in order to characterize the various classes of organic materials. The procedure was successfully applied to samples from paintings from the Bamiyan Buddhas and a panel painting from the 15th century, highlighting the occurrence of glycerolipids, animal and plant resins, proteinaceous and polysaccharide materials.

Effectiveness of heat protection of fabrics loaded with phase change materials

AbstractAmong different natural and non-corrosive products paraffin wax and camel fat are selected as phase change materials (PCM). These PCMs are applied to glass, polyester/viscose and wool/polyester woven fabrics. To examine their efficacy, their thermal behavior in a condition similar to the actual end uses is measured. Chemical nature and thermal properties of the PCMs are measured by Fourier transform infrared spectroscope and differential scanning calorimeter. A relation based on the principle of heat transfer is used to determine the temperature of a thermometer covered by fabrics loaded with PCMs. A simple exponential relation explains the experimental results. For glass and polyester/viscose fabrics use of these PCMs leads to substantial delays in the temperature changes. The important parameters for the evaluation of the products are discussed.

Improvement of Emulsified Automobile Polish Wax

Modified paraffin wax instead of natural bee wax has been used in the modified research of the automobile polish wax formula. The influence of the quality fraction of self-prepared emulsifier and thickener, as well as the emulsified craft conditions such as emulsified temperature, emulsified time, and agitate speed, on the emulsified wax performance were investigated separately. The results indicated that with the paraffin wax and the modified paraffin wax as the raw material, the quality fraction of the compound emulsifier was 2.1 ~ 2.5 wt% and the quality fraction of the thickener was 2.9 ~ 3.4 wt% at the technical condition of the emulsified temperature 85°C, the emulsified time of 40 min, and the agitate speed of 1000 r/min. The emulsified wax product was the translucent and neutral white emulsion with the blue light. The product would still be stable when it is laid aside for more than 60 ds. This emulsified wax was the raw material for automobile polish wax, which contained paraffin wax and the modified paraffin wax at 15 ~ 20 wt%. The emulsified automobile polish wax was prepared by adding some other surface active agents, luminous agent, and other promoters. This product would allow for cleaning, polishing, and waxing at the same time and operate easily with good effects.