Natural Resource Management Decisions Research Articles

Application of ecosystem services in natural resource management decision making.

An ecosystem services (ES) approach to natural resource management (NRM) can provide the framework for balancing economic, ecological, and societal drivers in decision making. The efficacy of such an approach depends on the successful execution of several key activities, from early and continuous engagement with relevant stakeholders, to development and application of ecological production functions (EPFs), to explicit recognition of uncertainty in the process. Although there are obstacles to the implementation of an ES approach in NRM, including unclear regulatory and policy frameworks and the paucity of useful EPFs, many of the tools are currently available or sufficiently developed. An ES approach can and, in some cases, should involve qualitative rather than quantitative assessment when the stakes are not very high or when quantitative approaches would not be cost effective because of highly uncertain results. Integr Environ Assess Manag 2017;13:74-84. © 2016 SETAC.

Toward an integrated understanding of perceived biodiversity values and environmental conditions in a national park

In spatial planning and management of protected areas, increased priority is being given to research that integrates social and ecological data. However, public viewpoints of the benefits provided by ecosystems are not easily quantified and often implicitly folded into natural resource management decisions. Drawing on a spatially explicit participatory mapping exercise and a Social Values for Ecosystem Services (SolVES) analysis tool, the present study empirically examined and integrated social values for ecosystem services and environmental conditions within Channel Islands National Park, California. Specifically, a social value indicator of perceived biodiversity was examined using on-site survey data collected from a sample of people who visited the park. This information was modeled alongside eight environmental conditions including faunal species richness for six taxa, vegetation density, categories of marine and terrestrial land cover, and distance to features relevant for decision-makers. Results showed that biodiversity value points assigned to places by the pooled sample of respondents were widely and unevenly mapped, which reflected the belief that biodiversity was embodied to varying degrees by multiple locations in the park. Models generated for two survey subgroups defined by their self-reported knowledge of the Channels Islands revealed distinct spatial patterns of these perceived values. Specifically, respondents with high knowledge valued large spaces that were publicly inaccessible and unlikely to contain on-ground biodiversity, whereas respondents with low knowledge valued places that were experienced first-hand. Accessibility and infrastructure were also important considerations for anticipating how and where people valued the protected land and seascapes of Channel Islands National Park.

Managers' experiences of visitor monitoring in Swedish outdoor recreational areas

Systematically collected information on outdoor recreation participation, motives and behaviors can improve recreation opportunities and reduce the risk of user conflicts. There are many uses of this type of information for managers of recreational areas including analyses of environmental, social and economic impacts, development of infrastructure, and marketing to appropriate audiences. One key component in building this knowledge is the application of visitor monitoring. This study takes an exploratory approach by analyzing managers' experiences on different on-site monitoring methods at 12 recreational areas in Sweden. Results show that knowledge of these methods and their use are strongly linked to individual managers' skills and competence. Contemporary changes in recreation behavior calls for more innovative monitoring approaches, but managers included in this study primarily work with rather traditional methods, which is likely representative of the overall situation in Sweden. Networking, educational programs and closer collaborations with universities could facilitate some of the challenges identified. Management implications●The study showed the relevance of improved visitor monitoring practices, and tailor-made monitoring guidelines, based on actual use and experience-based data.●Adequate visitor monitoring practices:- help to better incorporate recreation activities and values in natural resource management decisions,●increase the awareness of possible conflicts between recreational and other resource users,●show the possible need for increased management capacity, additional training or new ways of visitor management and provide a better foundation for decision making.

Making ecosystem services part of business as usual in federal governance

On October 7, 2015, the US Office of Management and Budget (OMB), Council on Environmental Quality (CEQ), and Office of Science and Technology Policy (OSTP) jointly issued a memorandum (http://1.usa.gov/1RxMT2p) titled Incorporating Ecosystem Services into Federal Decision Making. Although released with little fanfare, this memorandum – issued to all federal agencies – represents an extraordinary, mandatory directive requiring that they develop and institutionalize policies to promote consideration of ecosystem services (ES) in planning, investments, and regulatory activities, including permitting decisions. Its purpose is to integrate into federal decisions an accounting of the trade-offs in ES associated with federal actions, including public benefits often excluded from our market-based economy. Many ecologists will recognize the influence of the 2005 Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA), which included among its core recommendations a call for policy makers to integrate ecological information into natural resource management decisions. In the years since the MA, the science of ES has made considerable progress in building a knowledge base for use by lawmakers and regulators; the literature has grown by nearly 200% in just the past 6 years (Adhikari and Hartemink 2016; Geoderma 262: 101–11) and includes major reviews and syntheses such as the “Nature as Capital” special feature in PNAS in 2015. The new OMB directive on ES validates the field's remarkable advancements and its calls for a greater role in governance. It also affirms ecology's potential to have a positive impact on both the management of natural resources and economic efficiency, by reducing harmful externalities and improving the accuracy of the cost–benefit analyses required for major federal actions. In addition, the memorandum represents an important call to action for the ecological sciences community to help government – and society – further evolve and bring into the mainstream our collective understanding of the interdependencies and interactions between the biosphere and human health and well-being. Substantial knowledge gaps remain in the basic mechanics of how ecosystems actually deliver valuable services, and policy makers – especially those unaccustomed to working with ecological science – will need research relevant to their missions. For example, how might education and public health outcomes be affected if students or Medicaid beneficiaries have greater access to natural park lands? How might accounting for the coastal ES lost due to eutrophication affect decisions made by regulators who oversee water-quality control or fertilizer use? Ecological scientists have a vital role to play in ushering in this new paradigm. First, it is critical for researchers to understand that the memorandum is not simply a call for more static valuation studies of specific geographic locations. To be responsive to the OMB directive, agencies will need well-designed and targeted ecological and ES research that can inform specific policies and help them develop frameworks for day-to-day decision making – to put ES knowledge to work in the federal government's “business as usual” scenarios. For instance, a recent analysis of the storm protection benefits of coastal ecosystems identified several gaps in the technical understanding of how habitats like salt marshes and mangroves attenuate waves and buffer storm surges (Sutton-Grier et al. 2015; Environ Sci Policy 51: 137– 48); this information is acutely relevant to the responsibilities of agencies like the Army Corps of Engineers and the Federal Emergency Management Agency and informed the OSTP report Ecosystem service assessment: federal research needs for coastal green infrastructure, released in August 2015. The OMB's memorandum on ES could facilitate the intake and application of academic ES research like this across the federal government. Earlier this spring, under the process established in the OMB memorandum, agencies submitted preliminary reports to CEQ identifying existing ES programs they have underway and areas where ES practice could be applicable. CEQ and OMB will distill this information into mandatory implementation guidance, expected for preliminary release around December 2016. This document will establish common terminology and best practices for using ES information throughout the federal government, guidance that will also provide academic researchers with a clear “on ramp”, by specifying how to maximize uptake of their research by relevant federal agencies. President Obama's leadership through the OMB directive on ES provides a rare and extremely important opportunity for ecologists to step up and provide their best ideas and research in order to improve federal governance – an outcome long identified as crucial to slow global ecological decline. Let's get to it!

Hot Enough for You? A Spatial Exploratory and Inferential Analysis of North American Climate-Change Projections

Climate models have become the primary tools for scientists to project climate-change into the future and to understand its potential impact. Continental-scale General Circulation Models (GCMs) oversimplify the regional climate processes and geophysical features such as topography and land cover. The consequences of local/regional climate change are particularly relevant to natural resource management and environmental-policy decisions, for which Regional Climate Models (RCMs) have been developed. RCMs simulate, for example, three-hourly “weather” over long time periods, from which long-run averages (e.g., over 30 years) are commonly computed to estimate a region’s future climate. With anthropogenic forcings incorporated, RCMs provide a means to assess a combination of natural and anthropogenic influences on climate variability. The North American Regional Climate Change Assessment Program ran RCMs into the future, until 2070, for 11,760 contiguous regions, each of which is approximately $$50~\mathrm {km}\times 50~\mathrm {km}$$ in area. Using the 94,080 temperature changes projected to 2070 for all regions, for two RCMs, and for the four seasons, we present both an exploratory and a Bayesian inferential spatial analysis. Climate-model output is deterministic, but we capture its spatial variability using a hierarchy of conditional probability models. The exploratory Spatial Proportion Over Threshold (SPOT) function and the inferential PRedictive probability Over Threshold (PROT) function are defined and contrasted through videos available online in the Supplementary Materials, showing regions of North America that attain or exceed temperature change thresholds as a function of increasing threshold. The preponderance of our results throughout all regions of North America is one of warming by 2070, usually more (and sometimes much more) than $$2\,^\circ \mathrm {C}$$ .

Quantifying human well‐being for sustainability research and policy

To address human dependence on natural resources and anthropogenic impacts on ecosystem health, understanding and management of the linkages between nature and human well‐being (HWB) are urgently needed. One fundamental barrier is the lack of quantitative indicators and models that integrate HWB with direct and indirect drivers of change in natural resources. While primary surveys provide the most valid HWB measures, extensive new data collection is often costly, especially for large‐scale studies. Therefore, it is vital to develop methods and indices based on existing data (e.g., census data, survey data) for real‐world application. To address this, we propose a new method of using structural equation modeling to construct robust, spatially explicit HWB indices from existing data and demonstrate its validity and usefulness in Cambodia. Our method is scale‐free and applicable to different frameworks and data sources and thus supports relatively easy replication in many other contexts. Further application and refinement could improve understanding of human–nature interactions, move toward robust theory development, and guide natural resource management decisions.

Integrating social science research into wildland fire management

Purpose – Social science research is used to support the formulation of natural resource management decisions with accurate and timely information. Due to risk and potential impacts, this is important in wildland fire management. The purpose of this paper is to identify the respondent perceptions of a natural disturbance agent's impact on fire management in Colorado and Wyoming. Design/methodology/approach – The research methodology included a self-administered questionnaire completed by a random sample of respondents in three study locations adjacent to national forests. A quantitative analysis was conducted to identify attitudes about fuels management (prescribed fire) and beliefs about fire and fire management. Findings – Respondents viewed prescribed fire favorably and they understand the natural role of fire on the landscape. While results suggest respondents support management of forest conditions to decrease the effects of a wildfire, they do not feel that individuals have a right to expect their home to be protected from fire by land managers, nor do they agree with restricting home building near national forest land. Research limitations/implications – Future research should continue the longitudinal assessment of attitudes toward prescribed fires, incorporating respondent distance to the national forest or identifying respondents living within the wildland-urban interface. Originality/value – This paper illustrates how applied, social science research can meet the needs of agencies and public officials. Results of this paper have been presented to state and federal forestry officials, and members of an executive-level task force in Colorado studying wildfire insurance and forest health.

Bringing the integrative aspect of sustainable development into community natura l resource management: the case of agricultural land use in limpopo, south africa

Rural communities in South Africa manage natural resources under conditions of resource degradation driven by unsustainable practices. This is against a backdrop of the country adopting the principle of sustainable development and putting in place policies to facilitate integrated decision making, which is pivotal to sustainable development. Sustainable development is an integrative concept with a basis in a ‘whole systems approach’. There are no tools tailored to facilitate integration in community level decision making in South Africa and there is need to develop such tools. In line with the stakeholder approach, users have to be involved in the development of the tools and inform their content. The question is whether community level users are able to adequately inform such tools. The objective of this study was to assess the input of potential community level users into development of a decision support tool for improving integration in natural resource management (specifi cally agricultural land use) decision making. Stakeholder analysis was used to identify decision makers and their responsibilities and elucidate decision-making processes, criteria, context and characteristics of the tool. The main fi ndings were that (i) community agricultural land use decisions focus on addressing social and economic needs with no consideration for the environment; (ii) users visualised the tool as a set of guidelines for enabling equal consideration of social, economic and environmental factors and expected it to facilitate group decision making, communication and participation of different stakeholders in decision making. Stakeholder expectations for the tool were different. Stakeholder analysis was used to accommodate these different perspectives and reach consensus on issues. Stakeholders were able to provide integral information to developing a tool that is both acceptable to users and addresses the integration principle of sustainable development.

Values Mapping with Latino Forest Users: Contributing to the Dialogue on Multiple Land Use Conflict Management

Values mapping that represents how humans associate with natural environments is useful for several purposes, including recognizing and addressing different perceptions of natural resource ownership and management priorities, documenting traditional ecological knowledge, and spatially identifying the public's perception of economic and non-economic services provided by natural resources (McLain et al. 2013). The majority of this work has been conducted in developing countries and with disenfranchised communities, where participatory mapping associated with natural resource management is more widely practiced. As access to GIS technology has expanded, however, several projects have tested the benefits of values mapping for natural resource management decisions in industrialized countries (e.g., Brown 2005; Klain and Chan 2012). This article discusses one such effort: the use of spatial values mapping to incorporate the concerns of Latino forest users into federal and state policies on the Olympic Peninsula in Washington State.

Ecosystem services and resource management: Institutional issues, challenges, and opportunities in the public sector

Application of ecosystem services measurement and analysis to natural resource planning, investment, and management decisions has gained momentum over the past decade. This momentum springs from a confluence of practical conservation challenges and conceptual developments. In particular, the ecosystem services focus emphasizes an appreciation of the social and economic values of natural resources and ecological systems. Despite a growing interest in ecosystem services and their incorporation into public-sector decisions and transactions, a number of institutional challenges complicate these efforts. These challenges include dispersed agency authorities and jurisdictional fragmentation that may constrain the geographic scale of public-sector transactions or cross-jurisdictional planning and actions. Challenges also include limitations on agency capacities to adjust decisions in the face of changing resource conditions and new information. Nonetheless, many agencies have flexibility to incorporate ecosystem services assessments into their planning, use them to inform spending choices, and develop markets based on ecosystem services concepts. Challenges are, thus, more instrumental and practical rather than legal and structural.

Modelling the benefits of habitat restoration in socio-ecological systems

Decisions affecting the management of natural resources in agricultural landscapes are influenced by both social and ecological factors. Models that integrate these factors are likely to better predict the outcomes of natural resource management decisions compared to those that do not take these factors into account. We demonstrate how Bayesian Networks can be used to integrate ecological and social data and expert opinion to model the cost-effectiveness of revegetation activities for restoring biodiversity in agricultural landscapes. We demonstrate our approach with a case-study in grassy woodlands of south-eastern Australia. In our case-study, cost-effectiveness is defined as the improvement in native reptile and beetle species richness achieved per dollar spent on a restoration action. Socio-ecological models predict that weed control, the planting of trees and shrubs, the addition of litter and timber, and the addition of rocks are likely to be the most cost-effective actions for improving reptile and beetle species richness. The cost-effectiveness of restoration actions is lower in remnant and revegetated areas than in cleared areas because of the higher marginal benefits arising from acting in degraded habitats. This result is contingent on having favourable landowner attitudes. Under the best-case landowner demographic scenarios the greatest biodiversity benefits are seen when cleared areas are restored. We find that current restoration investment practices may not be increasing faunal species richness in agricultural landscapes in the most cost-effective way, and that new restoration actions may be necessary. Integrated socio-ecological models support transparent and cost-effective conservation investment decisions. Application of these models highlights the importance of collecting both social and ecological data when attempting to understand and manage socio-ecological systems.

Use of population viability analysis models for Atlantic and Pacific salmon recovery planning

Uncertainty and risk abound in making natural resource management decisions. Population viability analysis (PVA) includes a variety of qualitative or quantitative analyses to predict the future status of a population or collection of populations and to predict the risk of extinction (or quasi-extinction) over time given some assumptions of the factors driving population dynamics. In this paper, we review the various PVA models applied to Atlantic and Pacific salmon for determination of listing under the Endangered Species Act and in planning recovery actions. We also review the numerous cautions involved in developing PVA models and in interpreting their results. There have been a larger number of PVA models applied to Pacific salmon compared to Atlantic salmon due to the greater geographic range and number of species of Pacific salmon. Models for both Atlantic and Pacific salmon have ranged from simple models that view populations as simply a number of organisms to complex age- or stage-structured models depending on the purpose of the model and available data for model parameterization. The real value of PVA models to salmon conservation is not in making absolute predictions of the risk of extinction, but rather in evaluating relative effects of management alternatives on extinction risk and informing decision making within an adaptive management framework. As computing power, quantitative techniques, and knowledge of mechanistic linkages between terrestrial, freshwater, and marine environments advance, PVA models will become an even more powerful tool in conservation planning for salmon species.

A blueprint for mapping and modelling ecosystem services

The inconsistency in methods to quantify and map ecosystem services challenges the development of robust values of ecosystem services in national accounts and broader policy and natural resource management decision-making. In this paper we develop and test a blueprint to give guidance on modelling and mapping ecosystem services. The primary purpose of this blueprint is to provide a template and checklist of information needed for those beginning an ecosystem service modelling and mapping study. A secondary purpose is to provide, over time, a database of completed blueprints that becomes a valuable information resource of methods and information used in previous modelling and mapping studies. We base our blueprint on a literature review, expert opinions (as part of a related workshop organised during the 5th ESP conference22〈http://www.espconference.org/previous_editions/80045/5/0/60〉. ) and critical assessment of existing techniques used to model and map ecosystem services. While any study that models and maps ecosystem services will have its unique characteristics and will be largely driven by data and model availability, a tool such as the blueprint presented here will reduce the uncertainty associated with quantifying ecosystem services and thereby help to close the gap between theory and practice.

Facing uncertainty in ecosystem services-based resource management

The concept of ecosystem services is increasingly used as a support for natural resource management decisions. While the science for assessing ecosystem services is improving, appropriate methods to address uncertainties in a quantitative manner are missing. Ignoring parameter uncertainties, modeling uncertainties and uncertainties related to human–environment interactions can modify decisions and lead to overlooking important management possibilities. In this contribution, we present a new approach for mapping the uncertainties in the assessment of multiple ecosystem services. The spatially explicit risk approach links Bayesian networks to a Geographic Information System for forecasting the value of a bundle of ecosystem services and quantifies the uncertainties related to the outcomes in a spatially explicit manner. We demonstrate that mapping uncertainties in ecosystem services assessments provides key information for decision-makers seeking critical areas in the delivery of ecosystem services in a case study in the Swiss Alps. The results suggest that not only the total value of the bundle of ecosystem services is highly dependent on uncertainties, but the spatial pattern of the ecosystem services values changes substantially when considering uncertainties. This is particularly important for the long-term management of mountain forest ecosystems, which have long rotation stands and are highly sensitive to pressing climate and socio-economic changes.

EXPLORING THE APPLICATION OF VOLUNTEERED GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION TO CATCHMENT MANAGEMENT: A SURVEY APPROACH

Abstract. The participation and engagement of grass-root level community groups and citizens for natural resource management has a long history. With recent developments in ICT tools and spatial technology, these groups are seeking a new opportunity to manage natural resource data. There are lot of spatial information collected/generated by landcare groups, land holders and other community groups at the grass-root level through their volunteer initiatives. State government organisations are also interested in gaining access to this spatial data/information and engaging these groups to collect spatial information under their mapping programs. The aim of this paper is to explore the possible utilisation of volunteered geographic information (VGI) for catchment management activities. This research paper discusses the importance of spatial information and spatial data infrastructure (SDI) for catchment management and the emergence of VGI. A conceptual framework has been developed to illustrate how these emerging spatial information applications and various community volunteer activities can contribute to a more inclusive spatial data infrastructure (SDI) development at local level. A survey of 56 regional NRM bodies in Australia was utilised to explore the current community-driven volunteer initiatives for NRM activities and the potential of utilisation of VGI initiatives for NRM decision making process. This research paper concludes that VGI activities have great potential to contribute to SDI development at the community level to achieve better natural resource management (NRM) outcomes.

The use of detailed biotope data for linking biodiversity with ecosystem services in Finland

It has been widely accepted that ecosystem services (ESs) should be taken into account in natural resource management decisions. Hence, there is an increasing need for innovative quantification methods and tools to evaluate ESs on different landscape scales, and under varying land-use forms. Integrating biodiversity protection with the provision of ESs is a key element for sustainable land-use planning. Geographic Information Systems (GIS) and spatial analysis, together with various environmental data, provide a suitable foundation for ESs evaluations. Recent advances in earth observation technologies have supported land-cover-based ESs mapping on global, regional and local scales. Global and regional land-cover maps can help in coarse assessments of some biophysical characteristics of the environment, but they cannot provide exact information about local biodiversity and biotope types that form the base of ESs supply. Therefore, more detailed tools such as aerial photographs and field surveys are needed. High-quality biotope data are usually fragmentary or absent for private land in Finland, but are available for most state-owned commercial forests and protection areas. We tested the use of biotope data derived from aerial photographs and an extensive field inventory to map ESs in natural protection areas in northern Finland. We argue that protection areas, where large and long-term databases have been collected, offer excellent study sites to develop further the methodology for integrating coarse-scale remote-sensing data, such as CORINE, with more detailed ecological and structural data collected from aerial photographs and ground surveys. In addition, the use of detailed biotope data supports the linkage of biodiversity information with landscapes' capacities to provide ESs. Different data sources will improve the management of protection areas, thereby optimizing multiple land-use objectives.

Socio-Ecological Perspectives on Sustainable Livelihood and Environmental Management: A Multiple Case Study in Northern Thailand's National Park

Protected areas such as national parks play a crucial role in global conservation efforts and also provide a range of socio-economic benefits. This paper draws from preliminary findings from an ongoing research project to review the broad theoretical socio-ecological perspectives and applies multidisciplinary research to environmental management. The aim of the overall research program is to investigate the relationship between sustainable livelihood and natural resource management in northern Thailand’s national park communities, with a view to enhancing compatibility. Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) and qualitative research methods are used to develop an in-depth understanding of the governing institutions in natural resource management with regard to the context and perception of sustainable livelihoods. Our preliminary results show that sustainable livelihood activities are related to environmental conservation initiatives, such as annual forest restoration, the establishment of fire breaks, water resources management, and community-based ecotourism, which are the vital parts of natural resource management in northern Thailand’s national park communities. In addition, the ASEAN Economic Community (AEC) is the pathway for national economic and tourism development, which will promote change in terms of socio-economic development in local, national and regional ASEAN countries. The recommendation of this study considers that community empowerment to participate in natural resource management decisions is the significant pathway to support both sustainable livelihood and environmental conservation efforts within northern Thailand’s national parks.

Lessons in modelling and management of marine ecosystems: the Atlantis experience

AbstractModels are key tools for integrating a wide range of system information in a common framework. Attempts to model exploited marine ecosystems can increase understanding of system dynamics; identify major processes, drivers and responses; highlight major gaps in knowledge; and provide a mechanism to ‘road test’ management strategies before implementing them in reality. The Atlantis modelling framework has been used in these roles for a decade and is regularly being modified and applied to new questions (e.g. it is being coupled to climate, biophysical and economic models to help consider climate change impacts, monitoring schemes and multiple use management). This study describes some common lessons learned from its implementation, particularly in regard to when these tools are most effective and the likely form of best practices for ecosystem‐based management (EBM). Most importantly, it highlighted that no single management lever is sufficient to address the many trade‐offs associated with EBM and that the mix of measures needed to successfully implement EBM will differ between systems and will change through time. Although it is doubtful that any single management action will be based solely on Atlantis, this modelling approach continues to provide important insights for managers when making natural resource management decisions.

Adaptive management in the U.S. National Wildlife Refuge System: Science-management partnerships for conservation delivery

Adaptive management is an approach to recurrent decision making in which uncertainty about the decision is reduced over time through comparison of outcomes predicted by competing models against observed values of those outcomes. The National Wildlife Refuge System (NWRS) of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service is a large land management program charged with making natural resource management decisions, which often are made under considerable uncertainty, severe operational constraints, and conditions that limit ability to precisely carry out actions as intended. The NWRS presents outstanding opportunities for the application of adaptive management, but also difficult challenges. We describe two cooperative programs between the Fish and Wildlife Service and the U.S. Geological Survey to implement adaptive management at scales ranging from small, single refuge applications to large, multi-refuge, multi-region projects. Our experience to date suggests three important attributes common to successful implementation: a vigorous multi-partner collaboration, practical and informative decision framework components, and a sustained commitment to the process. Administrators in both agencies should consider these attributes when developing programs to promote the use and acceptance of adaptive management in the NWRS.

Overview: Spatial information and indicators for sustainable management of natural resources

Abstract Natural resource management (NRM) is becoming increasingly important at all scales, local, regional, national and global, because of an increasing human population and increasing per capita use of resources and space. Conflicts are intensifying between different interest groups. Production and conservation aspects are particularly debated because conservation often conflicts with economic and social sustainability. There is public demand for objective decision based NRM but limitations are all pervasive due to the spatial and temporal complexity and interdisciplinary nature. This special issue explores the use of spatial data and models to overcome some limitations of NRM decision making. The papers in this issue show modern approaches of natural resources management with a particular focus on spatial data collection, analysis and the development of spatial indicators. This issue presents a balanced mix of review and research papers that give examples of how to find or improve the spatial information base for evidence-based decision making. This overview makes the argument that understanding complex spatial pattern and processes, and the development of spatial indicators, is an essential aspect of evidence-based NRM. If spatial and temporal patterns are complex, ecological evidence from field data or experiments may have limited value for NRM and observational study designs become more appropriate for understanding complex spatial pattern and processes. Data quality should be documented as a combination of accuracy and spatio-temporal representativeness in order to be useful in the NRM decision process.