Natural Plankton Communities Research Articles

Resilience of Phytoplankton and Microzooplankton Communities under Ocean Alkalinity Enhancement in the Oligotrophic Ocean.

Ocean alkalinity enhancement (OAE) is currently discussed as a potential negative emission technology to sequester atmospheric carbon dioxide in seawater. Yet, its potential risks or cobenefits for marine ecosystems are still mostly unknown, thus hampering its evaluation for large-scale application. Here, we assessed the impacts OAE may have on plankton communities, focusing on phytoplankton and microzooplankton. In a mesocosm study in the oligotrophic subtropical North Atlantic, we investigated the response of a natural plankton community to CO2-equilibrated OAE across a gradient from ambient alkalinity (2400 μmol kg-1) to double (4800 μmol kg-1). Abundance and biomass of phytoplankton and microzooplankton were insensitive to OAE across all size classes (pico, nano and micro), nutritional modes (autotrophic, mixotrophic and heterotrophic) and taxonomic groups (cyanobacteria, diatoms, haptophytes, dinoflagellates, and ciliates). Consequently, plankton communities under OAE maintained their natural chlorophyll a levels, size structure, taxonomic composition and biodiversity. These findings suggest a high tolerance of phytoplankton and microzooplankton to CO2-equilibrated OAE in the oligotrophic ocean. However, alternative application schemes involving more drastic perturbations in water chemistry and nutrient-rich ecosystems require further investigation. Nevertheless, our study on idealized OAE will help develop an environmentally safe operating space for this climate change mitigation solution.

Immediate and prolonged effects of hydrogen peroxide to a natural plankton community from a tropical reservoir: ecotoxicological aspects and compositional changes

Immediate and prolonged effects of hydrogen peroxide to a natural plankton community from a tropical reservoir: ecotoxicological aspects and compositional changes

Picoplanktonic methane production in eutrophic surface waters

Abstract. Over the past decade, extensive research has delved into the methane (CH4) paradox, which involves aerobic CH4 production. We present noteworthy observations of CH4 oversaturation within the surface layer of the central Chile upwelling zone (36° S, 73° W) over two consecutive seasonal cycles (2018–2021). Complementing these observations, CH4 cycling experiments were conducted, utilizing distinct plankton fractions (encompassing the natural planktonic community, fractions < 150, < 3 and < 0.2 µm), in different productivity periods of phytoplanktonic production and composition throughout the year. Our findings underscore the pivotal role of picoplankton (< 3 µm) in CH4 production on the ocean surface, contrasting with the limited contribution of larger microorganisms (< 150 µm). Notably, incubations with methylated substrates, such as methylphosphonic acid (MPn) and trimethylamine (TMA), induce heightened CH4 production within the picoplanktonic fraction. This phenomenon is consistently observed during both upwelling (austral spring–summer) and non-upwelling (winter) seasons, with significance in the latter period, when Synechococcus sp. exhibits notably high relative abundance. Long-term microcosm experiments highlight the crucial roles played by heterotrophic bacteria and cyanobacteria in methylotrophic methanogenesis. This process enhances CH4 production, facilitated by the recycling of dissolved organic carbon (DOC). Picoplankton emerges as a pivotal factor influencing the recycling of methylated substrates, and it is responsible for maintaining CH4 supersaturation. These findings provide valuable insights into the biogeochemical processes driving CH4 dynamics, particularly in highly productive upwelling areas.

Nutrient enrichment alters phytoplankton biomass and composition via silicon limitation

Despite management efforts, anthropogenic nutrient enrichments continue to enhance phytoplankton blooms worldwide. Release of nitrogen and phosphorus compounds not only provides surplus of nutrients but also disbalances their stoichiometry. Declines in the relative availability of dissolved silicon might induce limitation in diatoms, major primary producers with silicified shells. We studied experimentally how nutrient enrichment and resulting decline in dissolved silicon to nitrogen ratios (Si:N) affect the structure and functioning of natural plankton communities. Nitrate was added to create a range of Si:N ratios and phosphate was supplied in Redfield ratio to nitrogen. We also manipulated copepod abundance to understand the top-down effects on communities experiencing nutrient enrichment. Nitrogen and phosphorus additions resulted in a steep phytoplankton biomass increase, followed by a post-bloom decline. Phytoplankton bloom biomass was higher in high nitrogen treatments but during the post-bloom period this trend switched. Biomass was sustained longer in high Si:N treatments, indicating that silicon limitation terminates the bloom. Many diatom species did not benefit from nitrogen and phosphorus enrichment and diatom dominance ceased below Si:N of 0.4:1. Under high grazing pressure, silicate was taken up faster suggesting that silicification is important in diatom defense. Copepods shaped plankton communities via feeding on dinoflagellates, chlorophytes and the diatom Skeletonema costatum but there was no significant effect of nitrogen and phosphorus enrichment on copepod abundance. Our results, combined with previous studies, show that while nutrient concentrations define the total phytoplankton bloom biomass, resource ratios are important in sustaining biomass and determining community structure and composition.

Warming and trophic structure tightly control phytoplankton bloom amplitude, composition and succession.

To better identify the responses of phytoplankton blooms to warming conditions as expected in a climate change context, an in situ mesocosm experiment was carried out in a coastal Mediterranean lagoon (Thau Lagoon, South of France) in April 2018. Our objective was to assess both the direct and indirect effects of warming on phytoplankton, particularly those mediated by top-down control. Four treatments were applied: 1) natural planktonic community with ambient water temperature (C); 2) natural planktonic community at +3°C elevated temperature (T); 3) exclusion of larger zooplankton (> 200 μm; mesozooplankton) leaving microzooplankton predominant with ambient water temperature (MicroZ); and 4) exclusion of larger zooplankton (> 200 μm; mesozooplankton) at +3°C elevated temperature (TMicroZ). Warming strongly depressed the amplitude of the phytoplankton bloom as the chlorophyll a concentration was twice lower in the T treatment. This decline under warmer conditions was most likely imputed to increase top-down control by zooplankton. However, removal of mesozooplankton resulted in an opposite trend, with a higher bloom amplitude observed under warmer conditions (MicroZ vs. TMicroZ) pointing at a strong interplay between micro- and mesozooplankton and the effect of warming for the spring phytoplankton blooms. Furthermore, both warming and mesozooplankton exclusion induced shifts in phytoplankton community composition during bloom and post-bloom periods, favoring dinoflagellates and small green algae at the expense of diatoms and prymnesiophytes. Moreover, warming altered phytoplankton succession by promoting an early bloom of small green flagellates, and a late bloom of diatoms. Our findings clearly highlighted the sensitivity of phytoplankton blooms amplitudes, community composition and succession patterns to temperature increases, as well as the key role of initial zooplankton community composition to elicit opposite response in bloom dynamics. It also points out that warmer conditions might favor dinoflagellates and small green algae, irrespective of zooplankton community composition, with potential implications for food web dynamics and energy transfer efficiency under future ocean condition.

The appendicularian Oikopleura dioica can enhance carbon export in a high CO2 ocean.

Gelatinous zooplankton are increasingly recognized to play a key role in the ocean's biological carbon pump. Appendicularians, a class of pelagic tunicates, are among the most abundant gelatinous plankton in the ocean, but it is an open question how their contribution to carbon export might change in the future. Here, we conducted an experiment with large volume insitu mesocosms (~55-60 m3 and 21 m depth) to investigate how ocean acidification (OA) extreme events affect food web structure and carbon export in a natural plankton community, particularly focusing on the keystone species Oikopleura dioica, a globally abundant appendicularian. We found a profound influence of O. dioica on vertical carbon fluxes, particularly during a short but intense bloom period in the high CO2 treatment, during which carbon export was 42%-64% higher than under ambient conditions. This elevated flux was mostly driven by an almost twofold increase in O. dioica biomass under high CO2 . This rapid population increase was linked to enhanced fecundity (+20%) that likely resulted from physiological benefits of low pH conditions. The resulting competitive advantage of O. dioica resulted in enhanced grazing on phytoplankton and transfer of this consumed biomass into sinking particles. Using a simple carbon flux model for O. dioica, we estimate that high CO2 doubled the carbon flux of discarded mucous houses and fecal pellets, accounting for up to 39% of total carbon export from the ecosystem during the bloom. Considering the wide geographic distribution of O. dioica, our findings suggest that appendicularians may become an increasingly important vector of carbon export with ongoing OA.

Cohesive bond strength of marine aggregates and its role in fragmentation

Marine aggregates are one of the main contributors to carbon sequestration in the deep sea through the gravitational settling of biogenic particles formed from the photosynthetic products of phytoplankton. The formation of large particles due to aggregation processes has been the focus of studies in the past, but recent findings on the spatio-temporal distribution of particles suggests that the fragmentation of aggregates plays an important role in aggregate dynamics. Here, we assessed the yield strength of aggregates derived from natural planktonic communities in order to analyze the cohesive bond strength and further understand fragmentation. The experimental approach was designed around the use of a Couette device, which produces a constant laminar shear flow of water. Aggregates were found to have a higher yield strength (~289 ± 64 nN) during phases of nutrient depletion than those of mineral particles such as montmorillonite. Based on an estimated cohesive bond strength of 96 nN a numerical model to predict the temporal variation of aggregate size was created. The output of this model indicates that cohesive bond strength is a major determinant of the size of aggregates in motion. Our findings suggest that the dynamics of marine aggregates are greatly influenced by cohesive bond strength and the role in fragmentation.

Influence of shallow hydrothermal fluid release on the functioning of phytoplankton communities

In the Western Tropical South Pacific (WTSP) Ocean, a hotspot of dinitrogen fixation has been identified. The survival of diazotrophs depends, among others, on the availability of dissolved iron (DFe) largely originating, as recently revealed, from shallow hydrothermal sources located along the Tonga-Kermadec arc that fertilize the Lau Basin with this element. On the opposite, these fluids, released directly close to the photic layer, can introduce numerous trace metals at concentrations that can be toxic to surface communities. Here, we performed an innovative 9-day experiment in 300 L reactors onboard the TONGA expedition, to examine the effects of hydrothermal fluids on natural plankton communities in the WTSP Ocean. Different volumes of fluids were mixed with non-hydrothermally influenced surface waters (mixing ratio from 0 to 14.5%) and the response of the communities was studied by monitoring numerous stocks and fluxes (phytoplankton biomass, community composition, net community production, N2fixation, thiol production, organic carbon and metal concentrations in exported material). Despite an initial toxic effect of hydrothermal fluids on phytoplankton communities, these inputs led to higher net community production and N2fixation rates, as well as elevated export of organic matter relative to control. This fertilizing effect was achieved through detoxification of the environment, rich in potentially toxic elements (e.g., Cu, Cd, Hg), likely by resistantSynechococcusecotypes able to produce strong binding ligands, especially thiols (thioacetamide-like and glutathione-like compounds). The striking increase of thiols quickly after fluid addition likely detoxified the environment, rendering it more favorable for phytoplankton growth. Indeed, phytoplankton groups stressed by the addition of fluids were then able to recover important growth rates, probably favored by the supply of numerous fertilizing trace metals (notably Fe) from hydrothermal fluids and new nitrogen provided by N2fixation. These experimental results are in good agreement within-situobservations, proving the causal link between the supply of hydrothermal fluids emitted at shallow depth into the surface layer and the intense biological productivity largely supported by diazotrophs in the WTSP Ocean. This study highlights the importance of considering shallow hydrothermal systems for a better understanding of the biological carbon pump.

Plastic leachates impair picophytoplankton and dramatically reshape the marine microbiome

BackgroundEach year, approximately 9.5 million metric tons of plastic waste enter the ocean with the potential to adversely impact all trophic levels. Until now, our understanding of the impact of plastic pollution on marine microorganisms has been largely restricted to the microbial assemblages that colonize plastic particles. However, plastic debris also leaches considerable amounts of chemical additives into the water, and this has the potential to impact key groups of planktonic marine microbes, not just those organisms attached to plastic surfaces.ResultsTo investigate this, we explored the population and genetic level responses of a marine microbial community following exposure to leachate from a common plastic (polyvinyl chloride) or zinc, a specific plastic additive. Both the full mix of substances leached from polyvinyl chloride (PVC) and zinc alone had profound impacts on the taxonomic and functional diversity of our natural planktonic community. Microbial primary producers, both prokaryotic and eukaryotic, which comprise the base of the marine food web, were strongly impaired by exposure to plastic leachates, showing significant declines in photosynthetic efficiency, diversity, and abundance. Key heterotrophic taxa, such as SAR11, which are the most abundant planktonic organisms in the ocean, also exhibited significant declines in relative abundance when exposed to higher levels of PVC leachate. In contrast, many copiotrophic bacteria, including members of the Alteromonadales, dramatically increased in relative abundance under both exposure treatments. Moreover, functional gene and genome analyses, derived from metagenomes, revealed that PVC leachate exposure selects for fast-adapting, motile organisms, along with enrichment in genes usually associated with pathogenicity and an increased capacity to metabolize organic compounds leached from PVC.ConclusionsThis study shows that substances leached from plastics can restructure marine microbial communities with the potential for significant impacts on trophodynamics and biogeochemical cycling. These findings substantially expand our understanding of the ways by which plastic pollution impact life in our oceans, knowledge which is particularly important given that the burden of plastic pollution in the marine environment is predicted to continue to rise.DubVoHjQQ1D-hWwEoHQrx7Video

Warming Disadvantages Phytoplankton and Benefits Bacteria During a Spring Bloom in the Mediterranean Thau Lagoon

To assess the response of a natural plankton community to the future scenario of a warming of +3°C predicted for coastal Mediterranean regions, an in situ mesocosm experiment was carried out over 19 days in a Mediterranean coastal lagoon in 2018. During this experiment, a phytoplankton bloom occurred and the abundances of several cytometric groups of phytoplankton (cyanobacteria, picophytoplankton and nanophytoplankton) and bacteria (low- and high-nucleic acid bacteria), as well as their growth and grazing mortality rates and their carbon biomass, were studied over the course of the experiment. Experimental warming led to a significant reduction of 47% of the phytoplankton biomass in average, based on Chl-a concentrations. This reduction was also observed for nanophytoplankton abundances during the whole experiment and for eukaryotic picophytoplankton only during the bloom period. This result coincided with a significant decrease in orthophosphate concentrations under warming during the prebloom and bloom periods simultaneous to an increase in bacterial abundances. At the same time, the higher growth rates of bacteria and the lower ones of phytoplankton observed at the beginning of the bloom could suggest that competition between phytoplankton and bacteria for orthophosphate might have contributed to the phytoplankton biomass decrease under warming. In addition, higher grazing mortality rates of phytoplankton groups under warming, notably nanophytoplankton at the end of the bloom and in postbloom (by 59 to 626%), as well as eukaryotic picophytoplankton over the course of the experiment (by 58 to 255%) could also have contributed to the lower phytoplankton biomass under warming. Based on these results, estimations of average phytoplankton carbon biomass production and transfer showed reductions of 42 and 45%, respectively, under warming, whereas those of bacteria were enhanced by 13 and 8%, respectively. These results indicated that warming induced a shift at the base of the microbial food web, going toward a more bacteria-based system. This suggested that under future warming scenarios, the microbial food web could become less productive and could negatively affect the functioning of the whole food web in coastal waters.

Enhanced silica export in a future ocean triggers global diatom decline

Diatoms account for up to 40% of marine primary production1,2 and require silicic acid to grow and build their opal shell3. On the physiological and ecological level, diatoms are thought to be resistant to, or even benefit from, ocean acidification4–6. Yet, global-scale responses and implications for biogeochemical cycles in the future ocean remain largely unknown. Here we conducted five in situ mesocosm experiments with natural plankton communities in different biomes and find that ocean acidification increases the elemental ratio of silicon (Si) to nitrogen (N) of sinking biogenic matter by 17 ± 6 per cent under {{p}}_{{{rm{CO}}}_{2}} conditions projected for the year 2100. This shift in Si:N seems to be caused by slower chemical dissolution of silica at decreasing seawater pH. We test this finding with global sediment trap data, which confirm a widespread influence of pH on Si:N in the oceanic water column. Earth system model simulations show that a future pH-driven decrease in silica dissolution of sinking material reduces the availability of silicic acid in the surface ocean, triggering a global decline of diatoms by 13–26 per cent due to ocean acidification by the year 2200. This outcome contrasts sharply with the conclusions of previous experimental studies, thereby illustrating how our current understanding of biological impacts of ocean change can be considerably altered at the global scale through unexpected feedback mechanisms in the Earth system.

Ocean Acidification Alters the Predator – Prey Relationship Between Hydrozoa and Fish Larvae

Anthropogenic CO2 emissions cause a drop in seawater pH and shift the inorganic carbon speciation. Collectively, the term ocean acidification (OA) summarizes these changes. Few studies have examined OA effects on predatory plankton, e.g. Hydrozoa and fish larvae as well as their interaction in complex natural communities. Because Hydrozoa can seriously compete with and prey on other higher-level predators such as fish, changes in their abundances may have significant consequences for marine food webs and ecosystem services. To investigate the interaction between Hydrozoa and fish larvae influenced by OA, we enclosed a natural plankton community in Raunefjord, Norway, for 53 days in eight ≈ 58 m³ pelagic mesocosms. CO2 levels in four mesocosms were increased to ≈ 2000 µatm pCO2, whereas the other four served as untreated controls. We studied OA-induced changes at the top of the food web by following ≈2000 larvae of Atlantic herring (Clupea harengus) hatched inside each mesocosm during the first week of the experiment, and a Hydrozoa population that had already established inside the mesocosms. Under OA, we detected 20% higher abundance of hydromedusae staged jellyfish, but 25% lower biomass. At the same time, survival rates of Atlantic herring larvae were higher under OA (control pCO2: 0.1%, high pCO2: 1.7%) in the final phase of the study. These results indicate that a decrease in predation pressure shortly after hatch likely shaped higher herring larvae survival, when hydromedusae abundance was lower in the OA treatment compared to control conditions. We conclude that indirect food-web mediated OA effects drove the observed changes in the Hydrozoa – fish relationship, based on significant changes in the phyto-, micro-, and mesoplankton community under high pCO2. Ultimately, the observed immediate consequences of these changes for fish larvae survival and the balance of the Hydrozoa – fish larvae predator – prey relationship has important implications for the functioning of oceanic food webs.

No evidence of altered relationship between diet and consumer fatty acid composition in a natural plankton community under combined climate drivers

Fatty acids (FA), especially polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), are key biomolecules involved in immune responses, reproduction, and membrane fluidity. PUFA in marine environments are synthesized exclusively by primary producers. Therefore the FA composition of these organisms at the base of the food web (i.e., phytoplankton) and their primary consumers (i.e., zooplankton) are important determinants of the health and productivity of entire ecosystems as they are transferred to higher trophic levels. However, environmental conditions such as seawater pH and temperature, which are already changing in response to climate change and predicted to continue to change in the future, can affect the FA composition of phytoplankton and zooplankton at both the organismal and community level. During a 20 day mesocosm experiment, we tested the effect of ocean acidification alone and in combination with ocean warming on 1) the fatty acid composition of a natural prey community for zooplankton (i.e. phytoplankton and microzooplankton), 2) the fatty acid composition of zooplankton, and 3) the relationship between prey and consumer fatty acid compositions in coastal waters. Significant effects of the climate stressors were not detected in the fatty acid composition of the prey or the relationship between diet and consumer fatty acids. A significant decrease in C18:4n-3 (stearidonic acid) was observed in the zooplankton but not their diet, but understanding the mechanism behind this decrease and its potential biological implications requires further investigation. These results highlight the importance of multi-stressor investigations on dynamics and variability contained within natural coastal plankton communities.

De-coupled phytoplankton growth and microzooplankton grazing in a simulated oil spill event in mesocosms

Microzooplankton (<200 μm) are essential intermediates between primary production and organisms at the higher trophic levels. Their ecological functions could be substantially affected by crude oil pollution. A natural plankton community was exposed to 10 μL L−1 of chemically dispersed crude oil (DOil) in outdoor mesocosms for 7 days, with control (Ctrl) mesocosms set up for comparison. Dilution experiments were conducted to estimate the grazing rates of microzooplankton on the 2nd and 6th days of the pollutants exposure. Results showed 0.36–2.28 d−1 microzooplankton grazing rates in the Ctrl mesocosms on both days but negative rates in the DOil mesocosms. A significant linear relationship between in situ phytoplankton growth and microzooplankton grazing rates was found in the Ctrl treatment but not in the DOil treatment. This suggests a de-coupling between phytoplankton growth and microzooplankton and the potential for the formation of phytoplankton blooms in seawater after an oil spill event.

Experimental evaluation of microplastic consumption by using a size-fractionation approach in the planktonic communities

The increasing amount of plastic particles introduced into continental aquatic environments has drawn the attention of researchers around the globe. These particles can be assimilated by a wide range of aquatic organisms, from microorganisms to fish, causing detrimental effects on trophic webs. Using an experimental approach, we investigated the effect of microplastic particles of different sizes on the planktonic trophic chain by sampling natural plankton communities from a lake located in the Upper Paraná River floodplain, Brazil. Zooplankton samples were collected at the beginning of the experiment and after 36 h of incubation. Microplastic particles (MP) samples were taken every 12 h. The effect of MP particle consumption from the control and treatment groups indicates significant effects by all plankton size fractions (p < 0.05). We demonstrated that the presence of MP particles can significantly affect the trophic web, furthermore, we detected the effect of higher consumption effect of smaller size MP particles. This study suggest that the largest MP consumption effects come from the lower trophic levels of the trophic chain, such as protists. The competitive effect of large predators is a crucial factor in controlling the abundance of populations, and although they did not directly consume MP particles, they ingest them indirectly through prey capable of absorbing these compounds in the environment. Our findings warn that MP particles enter the food webs of tropical regions when exposed to these pollutants, and that the presence of these particles should not be neglected when studying freshwater ecosystems.

Long‐term acclimation might enhance the growth and competitive ability of Microcystis aeruginosa in warm environments

Abstract The positive effect of global warming on the growth of cyanobacteria has been widely predicted, but long‐term studies targeting their adaptive potential to higher temperature have not been carried out so far. Predicting the magnitude and impact of cyanobacterial blooms in the future as a response to global warming requires an understanding of how cyanobacteria might change in the long term due to climate change. Here we examined the effect of exposing three Microcystis aeruginosa strains isolated in Romania to ambient (22°C) and high (26°C) temperature for 6 months. Then, the competitive ability of the strains after heat acclimation was evaluated, by analysing their impact on plankton community composition. One of the three strains displayed significantly higher growth rates after 6 months of cultivation at higher temperatures. Following inoculation into a natural plankton community, the overall cyanobacterial abundance significantly increased in the cultures inoculated with this heat‐acclimated strain of M. aeruginosa as compared to the ambient‐acclimated version. The structure of eukaryotic communities was impacted by both inoculated cyanobacteria and temperature during the experiments. The results of this study emphasise the high potential of cyanobacteria to respond to stressors, and highlight the fact that previous acclimation to warming is a critical factor in shaping the overall structure of plankton communities. Our study strongly advocates for including a step of culture acclimation to future experimental conditions in research programmes aiming to better understand the long‐term impact of climate change on aquatic ecosystems.

Increased Nitrogen Loading Boosts Summer Phytoplankton Growth by Alterations in Resource and Zooplankton Control: A Mesocosm Study

The effectiveness of controlling nitrogen (N) to manage eutrophication of aquatic ecosystems remains debated. To understand the mechanisms behind phytoplankton growth in shallow lakes (resource and grazing effects) under contrasting N loading scenarios, we conducted a 70-days mesocosm experiment in summer. The mesocosms contain natural plankton communities deriving from a 10-cm layer of lake sediment and 450 L of lake water. We also added two juvenile crucian carp (Carassius carassius) in each mesocosm to simulate presence of the prevailing omni-benthivorous fish in subtropical lakes. Our results showed that N addition increased not only water N levels but also total phosphorus (TP) concentrations, which together elevated the phytoplankton biomass and caused strong dominance of cyanobacteria. Addition of N significantly lowered the herbivorous zooplankton to phytoplankton biomass ratio and promoted the phytoplankton yield per nutrient (Chl-a: TP or Chl-a: TN ratio), indicating that summer N addition likely also favored phytoplankton growth through reduced grazing by zooplankton. Accordingly, our study indicates that summer N loading may boost eutrophication via both changes in resource and grazing control in shallow lakes. Thus, alleviation of eutrophication in shallow eutrophic lakes requires a strategic approach to control both nutrients (N and P) appropriately.

Evaluating the biological efficacy of a ballast water management system using filtration and electro-catalysis with an accurate definition of holding time.

We employed a mesoscale experimental system and enriched natural plankton communities to investigate the efficacy of a type of ballast-water management system (BWMS) that uses a combination of filtration and electro-catalysis as the treatment technology. The water samples were collected immediately after treatment and at discharge to measure the biological efficiency of this BWMS. The main hydro chemical parameters, the TRO concentration and the plankton species composition before and after the ballast treatment process, were measured. After treatment, the concentration of TRO remained at a high level of 1.690 ± 0.573 (SD) mg/L. The biological efficacy of ballast water after treatment at holding times of 10 min, 20 min, 30 min, 40 min, and 50 min were measured. Holding time significantly impacted the biological efficacy. The discharged, treated water satisfied the D-2 standard of the International Maritime Organization (IMO) after 50 minutes of holding time.

Physiological and nutritional constraints on zooplankton productivity due to eutrophication and climate change predicted using a resource-based modeling approach

Emerging evidence suggests that zooplankton production is affected by physiological and nutritional constraints due to climate change and eutrophication, which in turn could have broad implications for food-web dynamics and fisheries production. In this study, we developed a resource-based zooplankton production dynamics model that causally links freshwater cladoceran and copepod daily production-to-biomass (P/B) ratios with water temperature, phytoplankton biomass and community composition, and zooplankton feeding selectivity. This model was used to evaluate constraints on zooplankton growth under four hypothetical scenarios: involving natural plankton community seasonal succession; lake fertilization to enhance fisheries production; eutrophication; and climatic warming. Our novel modeling approach predicts zooplankton production is strongly dependent on seasonal variation in resource availability and quality, which results in more complex zooplankton dynamics than predicted by simpler temperature-dependent models. For mesotrophic and hypereutrophic lakes, our study suggests that the ultimate control over zooplankton P/B ratios shifts from physiological control during colder periods to strong resource control during warmer periods. Our resource-based model provides important insights into the nature of biophysical control of zooplankton under a changing climate that has crucial implications for food web energy transfer and fisheries production.

Diazotrophic cyanobacteria in planktonic food webs

Blooms of cyanobacteria are recurrent phenomena in coastal estuaries. Their maximum abundance coincides with the productive period of zooplankton and pelagic fish. Experimental studies indicate that diazotrophic, i.e. dinitrogen (N2)-fixing cyanobacterial (taxonomic order Nostocales) blooms affect zooplankton, as well as other phytoplankton. We used multidecadal monitoring data from one archipelago station (1992–2013) and ten open sea stations (1979–2013) in the Baltic Sea to explore the potential bottom-up connections between diazotrophic and non-diazotrophic cyanobacteria and phyto- and zooplankton in natural plankton communities. Random forest regression, combined with linear regression analysis showed that the biomass of cyanobacteria (both diazotrophic and non-diazotrophic) was barely connected to any of the phytoplankton and zooplankton variables examined. Instead, physico-chemical variables (salinity, temperature, total phosphorus), as well as spatial and temporal variability seemed to have more significant connections to both phytoplankton and zooplankton variables. Zooplankton variables were also connected to the biomass of phytoplankton groups other than cyanobacteria (such as chrysophytes, cryptophytes and prymnesiophytes), and phytoplankton variables had connections with the biomass of different zooplankton groups, especially copepods. Overall, negative relationships between cyanobacteria and other plankton taxa were scarcer than expected based on previous experimental studies.