Natural Language Systems Research Articles

10.1.2 Legacy Software System Integration

AbstractLegacy software systems are often the subject of analyses in attempts to affect modifications to extend their useful lifetimes. For the systems engineer, reengineering legacy systems or integrating legacy systems with new development and/or off‐the‐shelf software are areas which may provide particular challenges and where effective software system analysis is critical. When analyzing a software system, a range of system artifacts may be used. These artifacts include a description of the system in natural language, program design language descriptions, flow charts, object diagrams, as well as the system code. All of these artifact types can contain equivalent information at their specific level of abstraction. However, deriving information that is needed for reengineering or integrating a legacy system from each of these artifacts cannot be performed equivalently. For example, analyzing a poorly structured system with little or no design documentation is a particularly challenging problem. Software modeling using an abstract architecture representation as a common description vehicle, such as the Unified Modeling Language or some other, can “level the playing field” by creating representations of disparate systems at the same level of abstraction. This is of importance to reengineering efforts; it shows promise for supporting and facilitating integration efforts between legacy and other systems. This paper presents a methodology to express and manipulate (i.e. restructure) system architecture‐level models, an evaluation of the integratability of those models, and proposes a decision support system framework that makes the use of the methods.

Natural Language Processing Of Disfluent Sentences

An advanced model that includes new processes is provided for use as a component of an effective disfluency identifier. The disfluency identifier tags edited words in transcribed speech. A speech recognition unit in combination with a part-of-speech tagger, a disfluency identifier, and a parser form a natural language system that helps machines properly interpret spoken utterances.

Natural language system and method based on unisolated performance metric

A natural language business system and method is developed to understand the underlying meaning of a person's speech, such as during a transaction with the business system. The system includes a speech recognition engine, and action classification engine, and a control module. The control module causes the system to execute an inventive method wherein the speech recognition and action classification models may be recursively optimized on an unisolated performance metric that is pertinent to the overall performance of the natural language business system, as opposed to the isolated model-specific criteria previously employed.

გრამატიკალიზებული ჩანს ელემენტი და მასთან დაკავშირებული სირთულეები კორპუსლინგვისტიკაში

This paper discusses the process of grammaticalization in the natural language system, presents the main theoretical postulates defining this process, describes the functional-semantic characteristics of the grammaticalized element chans, and discusses the difficulties related to it in corpus linguistics.

OntoMap: an ontology-based architecture to perform the semantic mapping between an interlingua and software components

This paper is about the use of natural language to communicate with computers. Most researches that have pursued this goal consider only requests expressed in English. A way to facilitate the use of several languages in natural language systems is by using an interlingua. An interlingua is an intermediary representation for natural language information that can be processed by machines. We propose to convert natural language requests into an interlingua [universal networking language (UNL)] and to execute these requests using software components. In order to achieve this goal, we propose OntoMap, an ontology-based architecture to perform the semantic mapping between UNL sentences and software components. OntoMap also performs component search and retrieval based on semantic information formalized in ontologies and rules.

USING SCDL FOR INTEGRATING TOOLS AND DATA FOR COMPLEX BIOMEDICAL APPLICATIONS

Current bioinformatics tools or databases are very heterogeneous in terms of data formats, database schema, and terminologies. Additionally, most biomedical databases and analysis tools are scattered across different web sites making interoperability across such different services more difficult. It is desired that these diverse databases and analysis tools be normalized, integrated and encompassed with a semantic interface such that users of biological data and tools could communicate with the system in natural language and a workflow could be automatically generated and distributed into appropriate tools. In this paper, the BioSemantic System is presented to bridge complex biological/biomedical research problems and computational solutions via semantic computing. Due to the diversity of problems in various research fields, the semantic capability description language (SCDL) plays an important role as a common language and generic form for problem formalization. Several queries as well as their corresponding SCDL descriptions are provided as examples. For complex applications, multiple SCDL queries may be connected via control structures. For these cases, we present an algorithm to map a user request to one or more existing services if they exist.

References to graphical objects in interactive multimodal queries

Traditionally, interactive natural language systems assume a semantic model in which the entities referred to are in some abstract representation of a real or imagined world. In a system where graphical objects such as diagrams may be on the screen during the language interaction, there is possibility that the user may want to allude to these visual entities. Since graphical objects have their own properties (colour, shape, position on the screen, etc.) but may also represent items in a knowledge base which have other associated properties (price, geographical location, technical specifications, etc.), some systematic way is needed to enable such objects to be referred to in terms of either their screen properties or their associated attributes from the domain under discussion. In this paper, we present a formalisation for these arrangements, and show how our logical definitions can be used to generate constraints suitable for reference resolution within a natural language interpreter.

Bidirectional natural language system for interfacing with multiple back-end applications

A system and method for servicing natural language requests with a plurality of remote host systems. The system utilizes a computer program that comprises: (1) an input system for inputting an NL command; (2) a translation system that extracts a request from the NL command and stores the request in a host-independent format; and (3) a routing system for servicing the request, wherein the routing system comprises a mechanism for selecting a host, for converting the request into a host dependent directive, and for forwarding the directive to the selected host. The system may further include a speech recognition system, a local data source for servicing the NL command, templates for converting the request into the host dependent directive, a heuristic for selecting the host, and an output system for obtaining and outputting the response.

The obligations and common ground structure of practical dialogues

In this paper a theory of dialogue structure of tas k oriented conversations and its associated tagging scheme are presented. The theory introduces two linguistic str uctures supporting the dialogue that, following tra ditional terminology, we call the obligations and common ground. The theory is illustrated with the detailed an alysis of a transaction. We also describe the empirical work su pporting the theory, as well as an evaluation task. The paper is concluded with a reflection on the relation of the present theory to traditional notions of obligation s and grounding, its relation to a more general theory of discourse and conversation and its potential application to t he construction of spoken natural language systems.

Evaluation of terms and term extraction systems

Term extraction may be defined as a text mining activity whose main purpose is to obtain all the terms included in a text of a given domain. Since the eighties, and mainly due to the rapid scientific advances as well as the evolution of the communication systems, there has been a growing interest in obtaining the terms found in written documents. A number of techniques and strategies have been proposed for satisfying this requirement. At present it seems that term extraction has reached a maturity stage. Nevertheless, many of the systems proposed fail to qualitatively present their results, almost every system evaluates its abilities in an ad hoc manner (if any, many times). Often, the authors do not explain their evaluation methodology; therefore comparisons between different implementations are difficult to draw. In this paper, we review the state-of-the-art of term extraction systems evaluation in the framework of natural language systems evaluation. The main approaches are presented, with a focus on their limitations. As an instantiation of some ideas for overcoming these limitations, the evaluation framework is applied to YATE, a hybrid term extractor.

A natural language intelligent tutoring system for training pathologists: implementation and evaluation

We developed and evaluated a Natural Language Interface (NLI) for an Intelligent Tutoring System (ITS) in Diagnostic Pathology. The system teaches residents to examine pathologic slides and write accurate pathology reports while providing immediate feedback on errors they make in their slide review and diagnostic reports. Residents can ask for help at any point in the case, and will receive context-specific feedback. We evaluated (1) the performance of our natural language system, (2) the effect of the system on learning (3) the effect of feedback timing on learning gains and (4) the effect of ReportTutor on performance to self-assessment correlations. The study uses a crossover 2 x 2 factorial design. We recruited 20 subjects from 4 academic programs. Subjects were randomly assigned to one of the four conditions--two conditions for the immediate interface, and two for the delayed interface. An expert dermatopathologist created a reference standard and 2 board certified AP/CP pathology fellows manually coded the residents' assessment reports. Subjects were given the opportunity to self grade their performance and we used a survey to determine student response to both interfaces. Our results show a highly significant improvement in report writing after one tutoring session with 4-fold increase in the learning gains with both interfaces but no effect of feedback timing on performance gains. Residents who used the immediate feedback interface first experienced a feature learning gain that is correlated with the number of cases they viewed. There was no correlation between performance and self-assessment in either condition.

Temporal semantics in a superficially tenseless language

This paper contributes to the debate about ‘tenseless languages’ by defending a tensed analysis of a superficially tenseless language. The language investigated is St’at’imcets (Lillooet Salish). I argue that although St’at’imcets lacks overt tense morphology, every finite clause in the language possesses a phonologically covert tense morpheme; this tense morpheme restricts the reference time to being non-future. Future interpretations, as well as ‘past future’ would-readings, are obtained by the combination of covert tense with an operator analogous to Abusch’s (1985) WOLL. I offer St’at’imcets-internal evidence (of a kind not previously adduced) that the WOLL-like operator is modal in nature. It follows from the analysis presented here that there are only two (probably related) differences between St’at’imcets and English in the area of tense. The first is that St’at’imcets lacks tense morphemes which are pronounced. The second is that the St’at’imcets tense morpheme is semantically underspecified compared to English ones. In each of these respects, the St’at’imcets tense morpheme displays similar properties to pronouns, which may be covert and which may fail to distinguish person, number or gender. Along the way, I point out several striking and subtle similarities in the interpretive possibilities of St’at’imcets and English. I suggest that these similarities may reveal non-accidental properties of tense systems in natural language. I conclude with discussion of the implications of the analysis for cross-linguistic variation, learnability and the possible existence of tenseless languages.

Visualization in e‐Negotiations: An Inspire ENS Graph is Worth 334 Words, on Average

Electronic negotiations are supported by a number of technologies including e‐mail, web‐enabled decision support systems and e‐negotiation systems (ENSs). The features of the ENS used by a negotiator can affect the negotiation outcome because of the type and scope of support provided and its presentation. ENSs usually interface with users via a natural language system and/or graphical display. This paper reports the results of the effect of the provision of graphical representation on reaching agreement in bilateral negotiation using the Inspire ENS system compared to negotiations conducted using the same system without graphical representation. No difference was observed in the proportion of dyads that reached agreement with graphical representation compared to the system without graphical support. For dyads that reached agreement, participants using the system without graphical support submitted a lower number of offers. The average message size per dyad was 334 words greater, on average, for successful...

A ‘Natural Logic’ inference system using the Lambek calculus

This paper develops an inference system for natural language within the `Natural Logic' paradigm as advocated by van Benthem (1997), Sanchez (1991) and others. The system that we propose is based on the Lambek calculus and works directly on the Curry-Howard counterparts for syntactic representations of natural language, with no intermediate translation to logical formulae. The Lambek-based system we propose extends the system by Fyodorov et~al. (2003), which is based on the Ajdukiewicz/Bar-Hillel (AB) calculus Bar Hillel, (1964). This enables the system to deal with new kinds of inferences, involving relative clauses, non-constituent coordination, and meaning postulates that involve complex expressions. Basing the system on the Lambek calculus leads to problems with non-normalized proof terms, which are treated by using normalization axioms.

ManageLex -- a Tool for the Management of Complex Lexical Structures

Th is paper describes MANAGELEX, a lexicon management tool, developed at Hamburg University, Natural Language Systems Division. After a general introduction on lexicons, the authors present the architecture and functionality of MANAGELEX. Sections 3 and 4 give information on two of the MANAGELEX modules concerning the choice and the structural organization of the linguistic features in a lexicon.

Speech Versus Touch: A Comparative Study of the Use of Speech and DTMF Keypad for Navigation

This article reports on an experiment that critically tests user preference for an input modality (speech vs. Dual Tone Multiple Frequency[DTMF])in a phone-based message retrieval system. Unlike previous studies that compared these two modalities, the speech system used in this study was a fully functioning natural language system, and participants in this study were working professionals, rather than college students. Results indicate that (a) DTMF was more effective and efficient for linear tasks, whereas speech was better for nonlinear tasks; (b) speech was preferred to DTMF by a majority of users; (c) speech was judged as being more satisfying, more entertaining, and easier to use than DTMF; and (d) user preference for a particular modality was better predicted by user performance in nonlinear tasks rather than linear ones. Possible reasons for users' continuing preference for the speech modality even after experiencing fairly high recognition errors are discussed. Finally, the importance of examining speech user interfaces from other perspectives, in addition to efficiency maximization, is emphasized. The results of this study have theoretical, as well as practical, implications for the design of speech user interfaces and interactive voice response applications.

Towards efficient human machine speech communication

This research investigates the design and performance of the Speech Graffiti interface for spoken interaction with simple machines. Speech Graffiti is a standardized interface designed to address issues inherent in the current state-of-the-art in spoken dialog systems such as high word-error rates and the difficulty of developing natural language systems. This article describes the general characteristics of Speech Graffiti, provides examples of its use, and describes other aspects of the system such as the development toolkit. We also present results from a user study comparing Speech Graffiti with a natural language dialog system. These results show that users rated Speech Graffiti significantly better in several assessment categories. Participants completed approximately the same number of tasks with both systems, and although Speech Graffiti users often took more turns to complete tasks than natural language interface users, they completed tasks in slightly less time.

Mode and modal transfer effects on performance and discourse organization with an information retrieval dialogue system in natural language

This paper describes an experiment on the effects of learning, mode of interaction (written vs. spoken) and transfer mode on user performance and discourse organization during interaction with a natural language dialogue system. Forty-eight participants took part in a series of 12 dialogues with an information retrieval system presented either in the written or the spoken mode during the first six dialogues. The next six dialogues were then presented either in the same interaction mode or in another mode. The analysis of the results showed that performance (time, number of effective turns) improved throughout the dialogues whatever the mode of interaction. Nevertheless, performance was higher in the written mode. Moreover, mode-specific characteristics were observed. These consisted in greater use of subject pronouns and articles in the spoken mode. Similarly, in the spoken mode, the users found it easier to re-use the formulations presented in the system speech than in the written mode. Furthermore, the analysis also revealed a positive transfer effect on performance and discourse organization when the individuals first interacted in the spoken mode and then in the written mode. Both positive and negative transfer effects were observed when the individuals interacted first in the written mode followed by the spoken mode. The implications of the results are discussed in terms of direct and indirect consequences of modality effects on natural language dialogue interaction.

A natural language help system shell through functional programming

This paper investigates the development of a natural language (NL) interface for mixed initiative dialogues within a constrained domain and demonstrates the applicability of the functional approach to NL system development. The system consists of two major components, a natural language subsystem comprises a general-purpose parser that interprets a 'plug and play' tagged BNF grammar (which may be ambiguous), to parse natural language input and extract semantic information. The knowledge-based subsystem uses the semantic tags extracted by the natural language subsystem to generate a focused query to select the most appropriate script for a guided dialogue with the user. The system was written entirely in a purely functional language, which resulted in a surprisingly small and simple program.

Exploring the use of natural language systems for fact identification: Towards the automatic construction of healthcare portals

AbstractIn prior work we observed that expert searchers follow well‐defined search procedures in order to obtain comprehensive information on the Web. Motivated by that observation, we developed a prototype domain portal called the Strategy Hub that provides expert search procedures to benefit novice searchers. The search procedures in the prototype were entirely handcrafted by search experts, making further expansion of the Strategy Hub cost‐prohibitive. However, a recent study on the distribution of healthcare information on the web suggested that search procedures can be automatically generated from pages that have been rated based on the extent to which they cover facts relevant to a topic.This paper presents the results of experiments designed to automate the process of rating the extent to which a page covers relevant facts. To automatically generate these ratings, we used two natural language systems, Latent Semantic Analysis and MEAD, to compute the similarity between sentences on the page and each fact. We then used an algorithm to convert these similarity scores to a single rating that represents the extent to which the page covered each fact.These automatic ratings are compared with manual ratings using inter‐rater reliability statistics. Analysis of these statistics reveals the strengths and weaknesses of each tool, and suggests avenues for improvement.