Natural Ecological Communities Research Articles

Understanding of environmental pollution and its anthropogenic impacts on biological resources during the COVID-19 period.

The global outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic has given rise to a significant health emergency to adverse impact on environment, and human society. The COVID-19 post-pandemic not only affects human beings but also creates pollution crisis in environment. The post-pandemic situation has shown a drastic change in nature due to biomedical waste load and other components. The inadequate segregation of untreated healthcare wastes, chemical disinfectants, and single-use plastics leads to contamination of the water, air, and agricultural fields. These materials allow the growth of disease-causing agents and transmission. Particularly, the COVID-19 outbreak has posed a severe environmental and health concern in many developing countries for infectious waste. In 2030, plastic enhances a transboundary menace to natural ecological communities and public health. This review provides a complete overview of the COVID-19 pandemic on environmental pollution and its anthropogenic impacts to public health and natural ecosystem considering short- and long-term scenarios. The review thoroughly assesses the impacts on ecosystem in the terrestrial, marine, and atmospheric realms. The information from this evaluation can be utilized to assess the short-term and long-term solutions for minimizing any unfavorable effects. Especially, this topic focuses on the excessive use of plastics and their products, subsequently with the involvement of the scientific community, and policymakers will develop the proper management plan for the upcoming generation. This article also provides crucial research gap knowledge to boost national disaster preparedness in future perspectives.

Fine-Scale Mapping of Natural Ecological Communities Using Machine Learning Approaches

Remote sensing technology has been used widely in mapping forest and wetland communities, primarily with moderate spatial resolution imagery and traditional classification techniques. The success of these mapping efforts varies widely. The natural communities of the Laurentian Mixed Forest are an important component of Upper Great Lakes ecosystems. Mapping and monitoring these communities using high spatial resolution imagery benefits resource management, conservation and restoration efforts. This study developed a robust classification approach to delineate natural habitat communities utilizing multispectral high-resolution (60 cm) National Agriculture Imagery Program (NAIP) imagery data. For accurate training set delineation, NAIP imagery, soils data and spectral enhancement techniques such as principal component analysis (PCA) and independent component analysis (ICA) were integrated. The study evaluated the importance of biogeophysical parameters such as topography, soil characteristics and gray level co-occurrence matrix (GLCM) textures, together with the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) and NAIP water index (WINAIP) spectral indices, using the joint mutual information maximization (JMIM) feature selection method and various machine learning algorithms (MLAs) to accurately map the natural habitat communities. Individual habitat community classification user’s accuracies (UA) ranged from 60 to 100%. An overall accuracy (OA) of 79.45% (kappa coefficient (k): 0.75) with random forest (RF) and an OA of 75.85% (k: 0.70) with support vector machine (SVM) were achieved. The analysis showed that the use of the biogeophysical ancillary data layers was critical to improve interclass separation and classification accuracy. Utilizing widely available free high-resolution NAIP imagery coupled with an integrated classification approach using MLAs, fine-scale natural habitat communities were successfully delineated in a spatially and spectrally complex Laurentian Mixed Forest environment.

Characteristics of the natural flow regime paradigm explain occurrence of imperiled Great Plains fishes

AbstractThe natural flow regime (NFR) paradigm posits that naturally occurring temporal fluctuations in streamflow are necessary for maintaining natural ecological communities. Conservation actions guided by the paradigm have contributed to stream organism conservation on a global scale, yet NFR applications in highly altered Great Plains streams are lacking. We analyzed historical (1980–2017) fish occurrence and flow data from sixteen gage locations across three Great Plains river basins with the goal of relating flow indices calculated for one year prior to each fish collection with the occurrence of fishes belonging to the highly imperiled pelagic‐broadcast spawning (PBS) reproductive guild. We fit random forest models using flow indices, gage identification, and watershed area as predictor variables and PBS fish occurrence as the response variable for all suspected or confirmed PBS fishes in each basin. Results revealed that flow indices from all NFR characteristics were useful for predicting PBS fish occurrence, but the identity of the most important flow indices varied by species and river basin. We also found that gage location was an important predictor variable, indicating flow–ecology relationships are spatially contingent and suggesting the influence of other factors that vary spatially (e.g., river fragmentation and water quality). Partial dependence plots identified thresholds in flow indices such as the timing of maximum flows and fall rate that may be associated with the presence or absence of PBS fishes, and these plots can be used to identify flow index target values to benefit conservation efforts. Time series predictions for likelihood of occurrence at a single gage in the Brazos River basin revealed a positive correlation between likelihood of occurrence and non‐drought years for three of four species present, supporting recent findings that drought suppresses PBS fish populations. This study provides insight into the flow requirements of some of the most imperiled stream fishes in North America and contributes to environmental flow science on a global scale by establishing a robust methodology for delineating flow–ecology relationships.

Enhanced species coexistence in Lotka-Volterra competition models due to nonlocal interactions

We introduce and analyze a spatial Lotka-Volterra competition model with local and nonlocal interactions. We study two alternative classes of nonlocal competition that differ in how each species’ characteristics determine the range of the nonlocal interactions. In both cases, nonlocal interactions can create spatial patterns of population densities in which highly populated clumps alternate with unpopulated regions. These non-populated regions provide spatial niches for a weaker competitor to establish in the community and persist in conditions in which local models predict competitive exclusion. Moreover, depending on the balance between local and nonlocal competition intensity, the clumps of the weaker competitor vary from M-like structures with higher densities of individuals accumulating at the edges of each clump to triangular structures with most individuals occupying their centers. These results suggest that long-range competition, through the creation of spatial patterns in population densities, might be a key driving force behind the rich diversity of species observed in natural ecological communities.

Dynamic population stage structure due to juvenile–adult asymmetry stabilizes complex ecological communities

Natural ecological communities are diverse, complex, and often surprisingly stable, but the mechanisms underlying their stability remain a theoretical enigma. Interactions such as competition and predation presumably structure communities, yet theory predicts that complex communities are stable only when species growth rates are mostly limited by intraspecific self-regulation rather than by interactions with resources, competitors, and predators. Current theory, however, considers only the network topology of population-level interactions between species and ignores within-population differences, such as between juvenile and adult individuals. Here, using model simulations and analysis, I show that including commonly observed differences in vulnerability to predation and foraging efficiency between juvenile and adult individuals results in up to 10 times larger, more complex communities than observed in simulations without population stage structure. These diverse communities are stable or fluctuate with limited amplitude, although in the model only a single basal species is self-regulated, and the population-level interaction network is highly connected. Analysis of the species interaction matrix predicts the simulated communities to be unstable but for the interaction with the population-structure subsystem, which completely cancels out these instabilities through dynamic changes in population stage structure. Common differences between juveniles and adults and fluctuations in their relative abundance may hence have a decisive influence on the stability of complex natural communities and their vulnerability when environmental conditions change. To explain community persistence, it may not be sufficient to consider only the network of interactions between the constituting species.

Thresholds for ecological responses to global change do not emerge from empirical data.

To understand ecosystem responses to anthropogenic global change, a prevailing framework is the definition of threshold levels of pressure, above which response magnitudes and their variances increase disproportionately. However, we lack systematic quantitative evidence as to whether empirical data allow definition of such thresholds. Here, we summarize 36 meta-analyses measuring more than 4,600 global change impacts on natural communities. We find that threshold transgressions were rarely detectable, either within or across meta-analyses. Instead, ecological responses were characterized mostly by progressively increasing magnitude and variance when pressure increased. Sensitivity analyses with modelled data revealed that minor variances in the response are sufficient to preclude the detection of thresholds from data, even if they are present. The simulations reinforced our contention that global change biology needs to abandon the general expectation that system properties allow defining thresholds as a way to manage nature under global change. Rather, highly variable responses, even under weak pressures, suggest that 'safe-operating spaces' are unlikely to be quantifiable.

Biodegradation of petroleum hydrocarbons by bioflocculant-producing microorganisms of the aquatic ecosystems in the Arctic region

Currently it is not feasible to completely eliminate the contamination of water bodies with oil, which makes it relevant to perform activities aimed at addressing this environmental challenge. Biological method of cleaning water could be recognized as an effective means of environmental protection. Increasingly, bioremediation uses indigenous microorganisms of specific contamination sites, since these organisms are adapted to the prevailing climatic and environmental conditions, which confers the advantages. Consequently, studies aimed at isolation and selection of the most active microorganisms oxidizing petroleum hydrocarbons and capable of using them are particularly relevant. The aim of this study is the search and selection of effective microorganisms-degraders of petroleum, maximally adapted to the conditions of the Far North. In this study, hydrocarbon-oxidizing features of indigenous bacteria in the Arctic region were examined, and the most effective strains for devising the bioremediation agents were selected. In all strains of bacteria tested that demonstrated steady and intensive growth in the medium with diesel fuel the following characteristics were studied: the percentage of oil degradation in the conditions of laboratory model experiments, the indicator of hydrophobic indicator, and growth potential as well. Strains of microorganisms with the highest degrading ability were selected: A. eucrenophyla, Ps.lundensis, Ps. fragi. These bacterial strains are promising as biodecomposers of hydrocarbons and can be used in bioremediation of environmental contamination. Bacteria from the isolated strains are persistent and dominant components of the natural aquatic ecological communities, thereby the necessity of taking into account the climatic conditions of the region could be avoided.

Wetland compensation and its impacts on β-diversity.

The anthropogenic degradation of natural ecological communities can cause biodiversity loss in the form of biotic homogenization (i.e., reduced β-diversity). Biodiversity offsetting practices, such as compensatory wetland mitigation, may inadvertently cause biotic homogenization if they produce locally homogenous or regionally recurring communities. The fact that compensation wetlands often resemble degraded wetlands suggests that potential impacts to β-diversity are likely. Yet, it is unknown how high-quality, low-quality (degraded), and compensation wetlands compare in terms of β-diversity. We compared the β-diversity of high-quality, low-quality, and compensation wetlands at local and regional scales. β-diversity was quantified as the average distance to group centroids in multivariate space based on pairwise comparisons of community composition. The local spatial structure of β-diversity was assessed using species turnover across plots. Indicator species analysis was used to describe compositional differences potentially contributing to differences in β-diversity. Overall, the β-diversity of compensation sites did not differ from high-quality or low-quality natural wetlands. However, compensation wetlands had a high degree of internal turnover along the hydrological gradient, which culminated in homogenous zones in the wettest areas. Compared to high-quality wetlands, low-quality wetlands had significantly lower β-diversity at local scales, but significantly greater β-diversity at regional scales. Indicator species results showed that compensation wetlands were distinguished by low conservation value species typically found in old fields and waste areas. This analysis also indicated that the invasive grass Phalaris arundinacea was indicative of low-quality and compensation wetlands. This species is likely contributing to differing patterns of β-diversity between high-quality and low-quality wetlands. These results indicate that conclusions regarding β-diversity depend on scale and scope of analysis. Particularly, the unique architecture of compensation wetlands makes conclusions regarding within-site β-diversity dependent on the observer's position along the hydrological gradient. Additionally, while we conclude that compensation wetlands are not contributing to biotic homogenization at the regional scale, these wetlands are distinct from both high-quality and low-quality wetlands in their composition and structure. Therefore, assessments of the overall success of wetland mitigation programs should acknowledge the reality of these differences.

A Bayesian-weighted approach to predicting the number of newly discovered rare species.

In natural ecological communities, most species are rare and thus susceptible to extinction. Consequently, the prediction and identification of rare species are of enormous value for conservation purposes. How many newly found species will be rare in the next field survey? We took a Bayesian viewpoint and used observed species abundance information in an ecological sample to develop an accurate way to estimate the number of new rare species (e.g., singletons, doubletons, and tripletons) in an additional unknown sample. A similar method has been developed for incidence-based data sets. Five seminumerical tests (3 abundance cases and 2 incidence cases) showed that our proposed Bayesian-weight estimator accurately predicted the number of new rare species with low relative bias and low relative root mean squared error and, accordingly, high accuracy. Finally, we applied the proposed estimator to 6 conservation-directed empirical data sets (3 abundance cases and 3 incidence cases) and found the prediction of new rare species was quite accurate; the 95% CI covered the true observed value very well in most cases. Our estimator performed similarly to or better than an unweighted estimator derived from Chao etal. and performed consistently better than the naïve unweighted estimator. We recommend our Bayesian-weight estimator for conservation applications, although the unweighted estimator of Chao etal. may be better under some circumstances. We provide an R package RSE (rare species estimation) at https://github.com/ecomol/RSE for implementation of the estimators.

Functional exploration of natural networks and ecological communities

Abstract Species composition assessment of ecological communities and networks is an important aspect of biodiversity research. Yet often ecological traits of organisms in a community are more informative than scientific names only. Furthermore, other properties like threat status, invasiveness, or human usage are relevant to many studies, but cannot be evaluated from taxonomy alone. Despite public databases collecting such information, it is still a tedious manual task to enrich community analyses with such, especially for large‐scaled data. Thus we aimed to develop a public and free tool that eases bulk trait mapping of community data in a web browser, implemented with current standard web and database technologies. Here, we present the Fennec (Functional Exploration of Natural Networks and Ecological Communities), a workbench that eases the process of mapping publicly available trait data to the user's communities in an automated process. Usage is either by a local self‐hosted or a public instance (https://fennec.molecular.eco) covering exemplary traits. Alongside the software, we also provide usage and hosting documentation as well as online tutorials. The Fennec aims to motivate public trait data submission and its reuse in meta‐analyses. Further, it is an open‐source development project with the code freely available to use and open for community contributions (https://github.com/molbiodiv/fennec).

Transcriptional profile and differential fitness in a specialist milkweed insect across host plants varying in toxicity.

Interactions between plants and herbivorous insects have been models for theories of specialization and co-evolution for over a century. Phytochemicals govern many aspects of these interactions and have fostered the evolution of adaptations by insects to tolerate or even specialize on plant defensive chemistry. While genomic approaches are providing new insights into the genes and mechanisms insect specialists employ to tolerate plant secondary metabolites, open questions remain about the evolution and conservation of insect counterdefences, how insects respond to the diversity defences mounted by their host plants, and the costs and benefits of resistance and tolerance to plant defences in natural ecological communities. Using a milkweed-specialist aphid (Aphis nerii) model, we test the effects of host plant species with increased toxicity, likely driven primarily by increased secondary metabolites, on aphid life history traits and whole-body gene expression. We show that more toxic plant species have a negative effect on aphid development and lifetime fecundity. When feeding on more toxic host plants with higher levels of secondary metabolites, aphids regulate a narrow, targeted set of genes, including those involved in canonical detoxification processes (e.g., cytochrome P450s, hydrolases, UDP-glucuronosyltransferases and ABC transporters). These results indicate that A.nerii marshal a variety of metabolic detoxification mechanisms to circumvent milkweed toxicity and facilitate host plant specialization, yet, despite these detoxification mechanisms, aphids experience reduced fitness when feeding on more toxic host plants. Disentangling how specialist insects respond to challenging host plants is a pivotal step in understanding the evolution of specialized diet breadths.

Can coir increase native biodiversity and reduce colonisation of non-indigenous species in eco-engineered rock pools?

The expansion of built infrastructure in the marine environment threatens natural ecological communities at local and regional scales. An increasing interest in incorporating heterogeneity that is reflective of natural rocky shores into artificial structures through ecological engineering seeks to mitigate negative impacts. The addition of complex surfaces and novel habitats, such as water-retaining features, has been particularly successful at increasing biodiversity of marine infrastructures to date. Importantly, key habitat-forming groups, such as the complex turfing algae Corallina officinalis found on natural shores and their associated assemblages are still lacking from these eco-engineered features. Furthermore, whether observed biodiversity increases from eco-engineering are due to native or non-indigenous species remains largely unknown. Here, we investigated whether adding small-scale complexity (artificial turf) to artificial rock-pools (‘flowerpots’) on urban seawalls enhanced their effectiveness to increase native biodiversity. Responses of benthic invertebrates, algae, epifauna and fish in flowerpots with and without artificial turf (coir) were quantified. Contrary to existing literature, which reports an increase in biodiversity with an increase in complexity, no consistent effect of coir was seen on benthic, epifaunal or fish assemblages. Native species consistently occupied more than 95% of space in flowerpots while the proportion of non-indigenous species in flowerpots was small (<75% of the assemblage) regardless of treatment, and decreased over time. This result is promising, but warrants further investigation to determine if these trends reflect seasonal patterns or if non-indigenous species colonise early, but are replaced over time by native species. These are important considerations when planning large-scale deployments of eco-engineering features on seawalls to ensure that native species are targeted without increasing opportunities for non-indigenous species.

Microbiological soil treatment technology using natural biocenosis

The paper discusses the use of different biocenosis to clean soil from oil pollution. Indicated that the use of artificial biocenosis expensive and not always effective. It is shown that the use of natural ecological communities, for example, in the form of activated sludge wastewater treatment plants were selected on the oil refineries are much cheaper and as effective as the action of biological products, which are based on artificial biocenosis.

Oceanographic Conditions Limit the Spread of a Marine Invader along Southern African Shores.

Invasive species can affect the function and structure of natural ecological communities, hence understanding and predicting their potential for spreading is a major ecological challenge. Once established in a new region, the spread of invasive species is largely controlled by their dispersal capacity, local environmental conditions and species interactions. The mussel Mytilus galloprovincialis is native to the Mediterranean and is the most successful marine invader in southern Africa. Its distribution there has expanded rapidly and extensively since the 1970s, however, over the last decade its spread has ceased. In this study, we coupled broad scale field surveys, Ecological Niche Modelling (ENM) and Lagrangian Particle Simulations (LPS) to assess the current invaded distribution of M. galloprovincialis in southern Africa and to evaluate what prevents further spread of this species. Results showed that all environmentally suitable habitats in southern Africa have been occupied by the species. This includes rocky shores between Rocky Point in Namibia and East London in South Africa (approx. 2800 km) and these limits coincide with the steep transitions between cool-temperate and subtropical-warmer climates, on both west and southeast African coasts. On the west coast, simulations of drifting larvae almost entirely followed the northward and offshore direction of the Benguela current, creating a clear dispersal barrier by advecting larvae away from the coast. On the southeast coast, nearshore currents give larvae the potential to move eastwards, against the prevalent Agulhas current and beyond the present distributional limit, however environmental conditions prevent the establishment of the species. The transition between the cooler and warmer water regimes is therefore the main factor limiting the northern spread on the southeast coast; however, biotic interactions with native fauna may also play an important role.

Negative effects of an exotic grass invasion on small-mammal communities.

Exotic invasive species can directly and indirectly influence natural ecological communities. Cheatgrass (Bromus tectorum) is non-native to the western United States and has invaded large areas of the Great Basin. Changes to the structure and composition of plant communities invaded by cheatgrass likely have effects at higher trophic levels. As a keystone guild in North American deserts, granivorous small mammals drive and maintain plant diversity. Our objective was to assess potential effects of invasion by cheatgrass on small-mammal communities. We sampled small-mammal and plant communities at 70 sites (Great Basin, Utah). We assessed abundance and diversity of the small-mammal community, diversity of the plant community, and the percentage of cheatgrass cover and shrub species. Abundance and diversity of the small-mammal community decreased with increasing abundance of cheatgrass. Similarly, cover of cheatgrass remained a significant predictor of small-mammal abundance even after accounting for the loss of the shrub layer and plant diversity, suggesting that there are direct and indirect effects of cheatgrass. The change in the small-mammal communities associated with invasion of cheatgrass likely has effects through higher and lower trophic levels and has the potential to cause major changes in ecosystem structure and function.

Aquaculture’s Turquoise Revolution

On the menu at the Rossmount Inn in Saint Andrews, New Brunswick, on the Atlantic coast of Canada, you may find kelp-wrapped salmon– avocado tartare with sesame cranberry– apple vinaigrette, citrus–soy glaze, cilantro, and chives. It sounds mouthwatering, but this is no ordinary seafood. The farmed seaweed (Saccharina latissima) and Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) are not only side by side on the plate; they’ve been grown side by side, too. Like the old adage one man’s junk is another man’s treasure, at Cooke Aquaculture in New Brunswick, wastes from farmed salmon provide food for farmed seaweeds attached to ropes downstream, and rafts of blue mussels (Mytilus edulis) are also getting in on the nutrient bonanza. It’s a culturing method known as integrated multitrophic aquaculture (IMTA), which follows from the idea that in natural ecological communities, nutrient waste from one organism is reused as food for the next. In nature, the efficiency of nutrient recycling is not 100 percent, but natural ecosystems are thrifty. Little is truly wasted. Nutrient recycling is at the heart of Thierry Chopin’s dream of a “ turquoise” revolution. IMTA, hopes Chopin, will help aquaculture move toward more sustainable systems. Chopin, a professor at the University of New Brunswick and scientific director of the Canadian Integrated Multi-Trophic Aquaculture Network, believes that by shifting from single-species intensive operations to multispecies systems that mimic the functioning of natural ecological communities, we may green aquaculture’s blue revolution—to turquoise.

Microbial remediation of pollution in tropical coastal environments

The impact of waste on the coastal environment from urban sources and the agriculture, manufacturing and aquaculture industries can be mitigated by the use of appropriate microbes either individually or in consortia with plants. Aquaculture—coastal land-based and estuarine or bay cage aquaculture—and urban sewage and industrial organic wastes are particularly amenable to microbial technologies. Several criteria must be applied to ensure success. Appropriate species for microbial technology, i.e. microbes that are natural to, or integrate easily into, the natural ecological communities and provide the desired beneficial actions, have to be selected and produced at a cost that is acceptable to the end users. The microbes have to be added at a high enough population density to compete with the natural flora in the treatment sites. Bacteria that carry genes for antibiotic resistance and disease virulence must not be used in sites where they could affect not only human, but also fish and shrimp health; safety checks must be made during selection and production processes. Microbial technologies are now being used widely in the field of aquaculture, where an obvious cost-benefit is seen at harvest. Microbial technologies can lower energy and other costs of treating of urban and industrial wastes and assist in meeting regulatory targets for effluent quality.

Surface Elevation Change and Susceptibility of Different Mangrove Zones to Sea-Level Rise on Pacific High Islands of Micronesia

Mangroves on Pacific high islands offer a number of important ecosystem services to both natural ecological communities and human societies. High islands are subjected to constant erosion over geologic time, which establishes an important source of terrigeneous sediment for nearby marine communities. Many of these sediments are deposited in mangrove forests and offer mangroves a potentially important means for adjusting surface elevation with rising sea level. In this study, we investigated sedimentation and elevation dynamics of mangrove forests in three hydrogeomorphic settings on the islands of Kosrae and Pohnpei, Federated States of Micronesia (FSM). Surface accretion rates ranged from 2.9 to 20.8 mm y−1, and are high for naturally occurring mangroves. Although mangrove forests in Micronesian high islands appear to have a strong capacity to offset elevation losses by way of sedimentation, elevation change over 6½ years ranged from −3.2 to 4.1 mm y−1, depending on the location. Mangrove surface elevation change also varied by hydrogeomorphic setting and river, and suggested differential, and not uniformly bleak, susceptibilities among Pacific high island mangroves to sea-level rise. Fringe, riverine, and interior settings registered elevation changes of −1.30, 0.46, and 1.56 mm y−1, respectively, with the greatest elevation deficit (−3.2 mm y−1) from a fringe zone on Pohnpei and the highest rate of elevation gain (4.1 mm y−1) from an interior zone on Kosrae. Relative to sea-level rise estimates for FSM (0.8–1.8 mm y−1) and assuming a consistent linear trend in these estimates, soil elevations in mangroves on Kosrae and Pohnpei are experiencing between an annual deficit of 4.95 mm and an annual surplus of 3.28 mm. Although natural disturbances are important in mediating elevation gain in some situations, constant allochthonous sediment deposition probably matters most on these Pacific high islands, and is especially helpful in certain hydrogeomorphic zones. Fringe mangrove forests are most susceptible to sea-level rise, such that protection of these outer zones from anthropogenic disturbances (for example, harvesting) may slow the rate at which these zones convert to open water.

Compensatory dynamics are rare in natural ecological communities

In population ecology, there has been a fundamental controversy about the relative importance of competition-driven (density-dependent) population regulation vs. abiotic influences such as temperature and precipitation. The same issue arises at the community level; are population sizes driven primarily by changes in the abundances of cooccurring competitors (i.e., compensatory dynamics), or do most species have a common response to environmental factors? Competitive interactions have had a central place in ecological theory, dating back to Gleason, Volterra, Hutchison and MacArthur, and, more recently, Hubbell's influential unified neutral theory of biodiversity and biogeography. If competitive interactions are important in driving year-to-year fluctuations in abundance, then changes in the abundance of one species should generally be accompanied by compensatory changes in the abundances of others. Thus, one necessary consequence of strong compensatory forces is that, on average, species within communities will covary negatively. Here we use measures of community covariance to assess the prevalence of negative covariance in 41 natural communities comprising different taxa at a range of spatial scales. We found that species in natural communities tended to covary positively rather than negatively, the opposite of what would be expected if compensatory dynamics were important. These findings suggest that abiotic factors such as temperature and precipitation are more important than competitive interactions in driving year-to-year fluctuations in species abundance within communities.

Climate change and protected area policy and planning in Canada

Protected areas are the most common and most important strategy for biodiversity conservation and are called for under the United Nations' Convention on Biological Diversity. However, most protected areas have been designed to represent (and in theory protect for perpetuity) specific natural features, species and ecological communities in-situ, and have not taken into account potential shifts in ecosystem distribution and composition that could be induced by global climatic change. This paper provides an overview of the policy and planning implications of climate change for protected areas in Canada, summarizes a portfolio of climate change adaptation options that have been discussed in the conservation literature and by conservation professionals and provides a perspective on what is needed for the conservation community in Canada to move forward on responding to the threat posed by climate change. Key words: climate change, protected areas, parks, conservation, system planning, impacts, adaptation