Natural Disturbance-based Management Research Articles

Functional responses of understory plants to natural disturbance-based management in eastern and western Canada.

Natural disturbance-based management (NDBM) is hypothesized to maintain managed forest ecosystem integrity by reducing differences between natural and managed forests. The effectiveness of this approach often entails local comparisons of species composition or diversity for a variety of biota from managed and unmanaged forests. Understory vegetation is regularly the focus of such comparison because of its importance in nutrient cycling, forest regeneration, and for wildlife. However, larger scale comparisons between regions with distinct species assemblages may require a trait-based approach to better understand understory responses to disturbance. We compared the long-term effects of retention harvesting on understory vegetation in two large experimental study sites located in eastern and western regions of the Canadian boreal forest. These sites included the Sylviculture en Aménagement Forestier Ecosystémique (SAFE) experiment and the Ecosystem Management Emulating Natural Disturbance (EMEND) experiment, located in the eastern and western regions of Canada, respectively. EMEND and SAFE share common boreal understory species but have distinct tree communities, soils, and climate. Both experiments were designed to evaluate how increasing tree retention after harvest affects biodiversity. Here, we examined taxonomic richness, functional diversity, and functional composition (using community trait mean values) of understory plant communities, and also examine intraspecific trait variability (ITV) for five species common and abundant in both experiments. We observed the limited impacts of retention level on richness, functional diversity, and functional composition of understory plants 20 years postharvest. However, ITV of leaf morphological traits varied between retention levels within each experiment, depending on the species identity. Common species had different functional responses to retention level, showing species-specific reactions to environmental variation. Our result suggests that understory plant communities in the boreal forest achieve resilience to disturbance both in terms of interspecific and intraspecific functional trait diversity. Such diversity may be key to maintaining understory biodiversity in the face of future disturbances and environmental change. Our results reveal the significance of ITV in plant communities for understanding responses to forest harvesting and the importance of choosing appropriate traits when studying species responses to the environment.

Twenty-year recovery of managed stand, in structure and composition, in boreal mixedwood stands of northwestern Quebec

The natural disturbance-based management (NDBM) aims to maintain specific structural and compositional attributes of natural forests in managed stands. Operationally, NDBM relies on diversifying and adapting silvicultural practices, including partial harvesting (PC), to expand the range of options beyond that of simply clearcuts (CC). Established in 1998, the Sylviculture et Aménagement Forestier Écosystémique (SAFE) project evaluates this potential in hardwood, mixedwood, and coniferous stands in northwestern Québec, Canada. Our results confirmed a part of the NDBM objectives, i.e., PC allowed the maintenance of stands with mixed structure and composition, constituting an interesting complement to CC, which reset stand regeneration. However, PC did not accelerate the stand transition to later stages with less intensive harvesting or to earlier stages with more intensive harvesting. We essentially had an initial impact, delaying or stopping the stand evolution that dissipates over time and more quickly with less intensive harvesting. Furthermore, our results did not support the ability of PC to enhance the development of old-growth attributes like deadwood. Despite the 20-year horizon of this study, further field surveys will be required in the future to better understand the impact of different silvicultural treatments on forest productivity and biodiversity preservation throughout a forest rotation.

Precise Quantification of Land Cover before and after Planned Disturbance Events with UAS-Derived Imagery

This paper introduces a detailed procedure to utilize the high temporal and spatial resolution capabilities of an unmanned aerial system (UAS) to document vegetation at regular intervals both before and after a planned disturbance, a key component in natural disturbance-based management (NDBM), which uses treatments such as harvest and prescribed burns toward the removal of vegetation fuel loads. We developed a protocol and applied it to timber harvest and prescribed burn events. Geographic image-based analysis (GEOBIA) was used for the classification of UAS orthomosaics. The land cover classes included (1) bare ground, (2) litter, (3) green vegetation, and (4) burned vegetation for the prairie burn site, and (1) mature canopy, (2) understory vegetation, and (3) bare ground for the timber harvest site. Sample datasets for both kinds of disturbances were used to train a support vector machine (SVM) classifier algorithm, which produced four land cover classifications for each site. Statistical analysis (a two-tailed t-test) indicated there was no significant difference in image classification efficacies between the two disturbance types. This research provides a framework to use UASs to assess land cover, which is valuable for supporting effective land management practices and ensuring the sustainability of land practices along with other planned disturbances, such as construction and mining.

Effects of silvicultural selection treatments on spatial pattern and dynamics in a Pinus palustris Mill. woodland

Natural disturbance-based silviculture emphasizes harvest methods that emulate the timing and structural changes of natural disturbances. Longleaf pine woodlands are ecologically important ecosystems of the southeastern U.S. that support high biodiversity. Options for multi-aged silviculture include individual tree and group selection methods to promote regeneration—the latter method may be modified by retention of reserve trees. To explore the extent to which selection methods are congruent with natural disturbance regimes, we evaluated how treatments in mature second-growth longleaf pine woodlands affected overstory structure, pattern, and dynamics, and we made comparisons to an old-growth longleaf stand. In 2010, stands were harvested using individual tree selection, group selection, or group selection with reserves. We compared treatment effects on spatial pattern of residual trees, recruitment of trees into the 10 cm diameter class (hereafter “recruitment”), and tree mortality 8 years after harvest. Basal area and residual volume were similar among treatments, but the individual tree selection treatment had lower density and a unimodal rather than bimodal diameter distribution compared to other treatments. Group selection and group selection with reserves increased spatial aggregation, compared to individual tree selection which reduced aggregation. Recruitment was similar across treatments but usually occurred near existing trees in the group selection treatments and was further from existing trees in the individual tree selection treatment. Tree mortality primarily occurred as single trees rather than tree groups for all treatments. These results indicate that natural disturbance-based treatments vary in their effects on overstory spatial pattern and alter forest dynamics. In longleaf pine woodlands, the rationale for individual tree selection emphasizes maintaining a continuous input of needles as fine fuels for control of resprouting hardwoods with prescribed fire. This method, may simplify overstory spatial structure and alter forest dynamics after initial harvest. Maintenance of vertical and horizontal complexity is a central tenet of natural disturbance-based management, thus attention to spatial pattern must be given when individual tree selection methods are used. In longleaf pine woodlands, natural disturbance-based techniques such as group selection with reserves may better mimic spatial patterns seen in old-growth stands while preserving continuity of fine fuels.

Natural Disturbance-Based Forest Management: Moving Beyond Retention and Continuous-Cover Forestry

Global forest area is declining rapidly, along with degradation of the ecological condition of remaining forests. Hence it is necessary to adopt forest management approaches that can achieve a balance between (1) human management designs based on homogenization of forest structure to efficiently deliver economic values and (2) naturally emerging self-organized ecosystem dynamics that foster heterogeneity, biodiversity, resilience and adaptive capacity. Natural disturbance-based management is suggested to provide such an approach. It is grounded on the premise that disturbance is a key process maintaining diversity of ecosystem structures, species and functions, and adaptive and evolutionary potential, which functionally link to sustainability of ecosystem services supporting human well-being. We review the development, ecological and evolutionary foundations and applications of natural disturbance-based forest management. With emphasis on boreal forests, we compare this approach with two mainstream approaches to sustainable forest management, retention and continuous-cover forestry. Compared with these approaches, natural disturbance-based management provides a more comprehensive framework, which is compatible with current understanding of multiple-scale ecological processes and structures, which underlie biodiversity, resilience and adaptive potential of forest ecosystems. We conclude that natural disturbance-based management provides a comprehensive ecosystem-based framework for managing forests for human needs of commodity production and immaterial values, while maintaining forest health in the rapidly changing global environment.

Incorporating Insect and Wind Disturbances in a Natural Disturbance-Based Management Framework for the Boreal Forest

Natural disturbances are fundamental to forest ecosystem dynamics and have been used for two decades to improve forest management, notably in the boreal forest. Initially based on fire regimes, there is now a need to extend the concept to include other types of disturbances as they can greatly contribute to forest dynamics in some regions of the boreal zone. Here we review the main descriptors—that is, the severity, specificity, spatial and temporal descriptors and legacies, of windthrow and spruce bud worm outbreak disturbance regimes in boreal forests—in order to facilitate incorporating them into a natural disturbance-based forest management framework. We also describe the biological legacies that are generated by these disturbances. Temporal and spatial descriptors characterising both disturbance types are generally variable in time and space. This makes them difficult to reproduce in an ecosystem management framework. However, severity and specificity descriptors may provide a template upon which policies for maintaining post harvesting and salvage logging biological legacies can be based. In a context in which management mainly targets mature and old-growth stages, integrating insect and wind disturbances in a management framework is an important goal, as these disturbances contribute to creating heterogeneity in mature and old-growth forest characteristics.

Predicting post-fire canopy mortality in the boreal forest from dNBR derived from time series of Landsat data

Regulatory and certification agencies need historical fire pattern information across the Canadian boreal forest to support natural disturbance-based management. Landsat-derived spectral indices have been used extensively to map burn severity in North America. However, satellite-derived burn severity is difficult to define and quantify, and relies heavily on ground truth data for validation, which hinders fire pattern analysis over broad scales. It is therefore critical to translate burn severity estimates into more quantifiable measurements of post-fire conditions and to provide more cost-effective methods to derive validation data. We assessed the degree to which Landsat-derived indices and ancillary data can be used to classify canopy mortality for 10 fires in the boreal forest of Alberta and Saskatchewan, Canada. Models based on two and three mortality classes had overall accuracies of 91 and 72% respectively. The three-level classification has more utility for resource management, with improved accuracy at predicting unburned and complete canopy mortality classes (93 and 66%), but is relatively inaccurate for the partial mortality class (56%). The results presented here can be used to assess the suitability of different canopy mortality models for forest fire management goals, to help provide objective, consistent and cost-effective results to analyse historical fire patterns across the Canadian boreal forest.

Variation in post-wildfire regeneration of boreal mixedwood forests: underlying factors and implications for natural disturbance-based management

To test the direct regeneration hypothesis and support natural disturbance-based forest management we characterized the structure and composition of boreal mixedwood forests regenerating after large wildfires and examined the influence of pre-fire stand composition and post-fire competing vegetation. In stands which had been deciduous (Populus sp.)-dominated, conifer (white spruce)-dominated, or mixed pre-fire we measured regeneration stocking (presence in 10 m2 plots), density and height 10–20 years post-burn in five wildfires in Alberta, Canada. Most plots regenerated to the deciduous or mixed stocking types; plots in the older fire and in stands that were pure conifer pre-fire had higher amounts of conifer regeneration. Surprisingly, regeneration in pre-fire ‘pure’ white spruce stands was most often to pine, although these had not been recorded in the pre-fire inventory. Pre-fire deciduous stands were the most resilient in that poplar species dominated their post-fire regeneration in terms of stocking, density and height. These stands also had the highest diversity of regenerating tree species and the most unstocked plots. High grass cover negatively affected regeneration density of both deciduous and conifer trees. Our results demonstrate the natural occurrence of regeneration gaps, pre- to post-fire changes in forest composition, and high variation in post-fire regeneration composition. These should be taken into consideration when developing goals for post-harvest regeneration mimicking natural disturbance.

Constraints to partial cutting in the boreal forest of Canada in the context of natural disturbance-based management: a review

Over the last 25 years, greater understanding of natural dynamics in the boreal forest has led to the integration of forest ecosystem management principles into forest policy of several Canadian provinces and, in turn, to greater interest in developing silvicultural treatments that are grounded in natural stand-level dynamics – often referred to as natural disturbance-based silviculture. As a result, alternative silvicultural practices including variants of partial cutting are increasingly being applied in the boreal forest as an approach to balancing economic and ecological management objectives. While the numerous benefits of partial cutting reported in the literature are acknowledged, the objective of this paper is to provide an overview of factors or constraints that potentially limit the application of these practices in boreal Canada in the context of forest ecosystem management and natural disturbance-based silviculture. Among constraining factors, numerous studies have reported elevated mortality rates of residual stems following partial cutting, initial growth stagnation of residual trees, problems related to recruitment of desirable species and, on certain flat or lowland sites, risks of long-term decline in site and stand productivity. A number of operational challenges to partial cutting in the boreal forest are also presented and several avenues of research are proposed.

Tree community structural development in young boreal forests: A comparison of fire and harvesting disturbance

Although natural disturbance-based management systems support the use of clearcut harvesting as a means of emulating fire disturbance in boreal forest, there are continual concerns and uncertainties over the degree to which clearcutting alters forest ecosystem dynamics relative to wildfire. Here, we sampled 56 and 47 post-fire and post-harvest stands, respectively, to examine early tree community structural development in young boreal mixedwood forests in central Canada. We find that tree species diversity is higher immediately following clearcut harvesting compared with stand-replacing crown fire. We attribute this primarily to protection of advanced regeneration, suitable regeneration substrates, and propagule availability of shade-tolerant conifer species following harvesting compared with fire. Although both disturbances promoted early successional species, harvesting resulted in higher regeneration densities of late-successional conifers (Picea mariana (Mill.) and Abies balsamea (L.) Mill.). Vertical height structure variation was higher after fire than harvesting, likely a result of spatial heterogeneity in burn severity. Although tree heights, corrected for stand age, did not differ between disturbances for Populus tremuloides Michx. and Pinus banksiana Lamb., they were shorter for Betula papyrifera Marsh. and taller for late-successional conifers following harvest. Higher tree species richness, regeneration densities, and tree heights of late-successional conifer species indicate that clearcut harvesting can potentially accelerate succession in boreal mixedwood forests; however, harvesting can reduce height structural variability. Furthermore, leaving Betula papyrifera to satisfy the policy requirement for green tree retention can negatively affect its post-harvest regeneration and growth.

Burning of Logged Sites to Protect Beetles in Managed Boreal Forests

Natural disturbance-based management and conservation strategies are needed to protect forest biodiversity. Boreal forests of northern Europe are typically clearcut and otherwise intensively managed for timber production. As a result, natural disturbances such as forest fires have became rare and the volume of dead wood has decreased. These changes have had a profound negative effect on species that depend on dead wood (saproxylic). Therefore, it is important to determine whether modifications of forest management methods can enhance the survival of these species. In our study area in southern Finland, we determined whether burning of logged sites and leaving trees (i.e., retention trees) on the sites benefited saproxylic, rare, and red-listed beetle species and how long the burned sites remained suitable habitat for these species. We surveyed the beetle fauna at 40 sites logged 1-16 years previously, 20 of which were burned after logging. The abundance and species richness of saproxylic beetles were positively affected by burning, but the effect depended on the retention of trees in the otherwise clearcut stands. The difference between burned and unburned sites increased with the number of retention trees, and the effect of burning was not significant when there were fewer than approximately 15 retention trees/ha. Most important, the species groups that were unlikely to persist in ordinarily managed forests (rare saproxylic and red-listed beetles), benefited strongly from burning and tree retention. The species richness of saproxylic beetles decreased with time since logging at both burned and at unburned sites. We conclude that burning of logged sites and leaving an adequate number of retention trees may be useful in the conservation of disturbance-adapted species and can be used to improve the environmental quality of the matrix surrounding protected areas. Unfortunately, sites remained high-quality habitat for only a short time; thus, a continuum of burned areas must be ensured.

Implementation of natural disturbance-based management in northern British Columbia

Ecologically based landscape units and associated characteristics of natural disturbance (e.g., seral stage and patch size distribution) were recently developed for the northeast corner of British Columbia and used as the basis for establishing guidance and policy for natural disturbance-based management for two large timber supply areas. I discuss the development of the landscape units; development of guidance for the units; and implementation of the guidance for old forest, interior old forest, and early seral patch size objectives. This paper demonstrates how natural-disturbance-based management can be successfully implemented. Key words: natural-disturbance-based management, natural range of variability, seral stage distribution, old-forest requirements, patch size, guidance, implementation

Using spatially explicit simulations to explore size distribution and spacing of regenerating areas produced by wildfires: recommendations for designing harvest agglomerations for the Canadian boreal forest

It is now recognized that in the Canadian boreal forest, timber harvesting activities have replaced wildfires as the main stand-replacing disturbance. Differences in landscape patterns derived from these two sources of disturbance have, however, raised concerns that the way forest harvesting has been dispersed is potentially shifting patterns away from the natural range. In the context of natural disturbance-based management, we used a spatially explicit model designed to capture general fire regimes in order to quantify temporal variability associated with regenerating areas (burnt areas of 25 years or younger), and to develop strategic objectives for harvest agglomeration sizes and dispersion. We first evaluated temporal variability in the proportion of stands younger than 100 years (assumed to be even-aged stands) for various fire regimes (seven fire cycles: 50 to 400 years, and three mean fires sizes: 3000, 15 000 and 60 000 ha). Secondly, we quantified the size distribution and dispersion of regenerating areas for each fire regime. As expected by theoretical fire frequencies and size distributions, the importance of even-aged stands at the forest management unit level was found to decrease with longer fire cycles. However, the temporal variability associated with these proportions is shown to increase with mean fire size. It was also observed that the size distribution and dispersion of regenerating areas was primarily influenced by mean fire size. Based on these observations, natural disturbance-based management objectives were formulated, providing guidelines on harvest agglomeration size and dispersion. Key words: temporal variability, boreal forest, fire regime, forest management, age distribution, fire size distribution, clearcut agglomeration size distribution

Past, current, and future fire frequencies in Quebec's commercial forests: implications for the cumulative effects of harvesting and fire on age-class structure and natural disturbance-based management

The past decade has seen an increasing interest in forest management based on historical or natural disturbance dynamics. The rationale is that management that favours landscape compositions and stand structures similar to those found historically should also maintain biodiversity and essential ecological functions. In fire-dominated landscapes, this approach is feasible only if current and future fire frequencies are sufficiently low compared with the preindustrial fire frequency, so a substitution of fire by forest management can occur without elevating the overall frequency of disturbance. We address this question by comparing current and simulated future fire frequency based on 2 × CO2 and 3 × CO2 scenarios to historical reconstructions of fire frequency in the commercial forests of Quebec. For most regions, current and simulated future fire frequencies are lower than the historical fire frequency, suggesting that forest management could potentially be used to maintain or recreate the age-class distribution of fire-dominated preindustrial landscapes. Current even-aged management, however, tends to reduce forest variability by, for example, truncating the natural age-class distribution and eliminating mature and old-growth forests from the landscape. Therefore, in the context of sustainable forest management, silvicultural techniques that retain a spectrum of forest compositions and structures at different scales are necessary to maintain this variability and thereby allow a substitution of fire by harvesting.

Can forest management based on natural disturbances maintain ecological resilience?

Given the increasingly global stresses on forests, many ecologists argue that managers must maintain ecological resilience: the capacity of ecosystems to absorb disturbances without undergoing fundamental change. In this review we ask: Can the emerging paradigm of natural-disturbance-based management (NDBM) maintain ecological resilience in managed forests? Applying resilience theory requires careful articulation of the ecosystem state under consideration, the disturbances and stresses that affect the persistence of possible alternative states, and the spatial and temporal scales of management relevance. Implementing NDBM while maintaining resilience means recognizing that (i) biodiversity is important for long-term ecosystem persistence, (ii) natural disturbances play a critical role as a generator of structural and compositional heterogeneity at multiple scales, and (iii) traditional management tends to produce forests more homogeneous than those disturbed naturally and increases the likelihood of unexpected catastrophic change by constraining variation of key environmental processes. NDBM may maintain resilience if silvicultural strategies retain the structures and processes that perpetuate desired states while reducing those that enhance resilience of undesirable states. Such strategies require an understanding of harvesting impacts on slow ecosystem processes, such as seed-bank or nutrient dynamics, which in the long term can lead to ecological surprises by altering the forest's capacity to reorganize after disturbance.

HISTORICAL RANGE OF VARIABILITY IN LANDSCAPE STRUCTURE: A SIMULATION STUDY IN OREGON, USA

2 Pacific Northwest Research Station, USDA Forest Service, Corvallis, Oregon 97331 USA Abstract. We estimated the historical range of variability (HRV) of forest landscape structure under natural disturbance regimes at the scale of a physiographic province (Oregon Coast Range, 2 million ha) and evaluated the similarity to HRV of current and future landscapes under alternative management scenarios. We used a stochastic fire simulation model to simulate presettlement landscapes and quantified the HRV of landscape structure using multivariate analysis of landscape metrics. We examined two alternative policy sce- narios simulated by two spatially explicit simulation models: (1) current management pol- icies for 100 years into the future and (2) the wildfire scenario with no active management until it reached the HRV. The simulation results indicated that historical landscapes of the province were dynamic, composed of patches of various sizes and age classes ranging from 0 to .800 years including numerous, small, unburned forest islands. The current landscape was outside the HRV. The landscape did not return to the HRV in the 100 years under either scenario, largely because of lack of old-growth forests and the abundance of young forests. Under the current policy scenario, development of landscape structure was limited by the spatial arrangement of different ownerships and the highly contrasting management regimes among ownerships. As a result, the vegetation pattern after 100 years reflected the ownership pattern. Sur- prisingly, the wildfire scenario initially moved the landscape away from the HRV during the first 100 years, after which it moved toward the HRV, but it required many more centuries to reach it. Extensive forest management and human-caused fires in the 20th century have left legacies on the landscape that could take centuries to be obliterated by wildfire. Departure from the HRV can serve as an indicator of landscape conditions, but results depend on scale and quantification of landscape heterogeneity. The direct application of the concept of HRV to forest policy and management in large landscapes is often limited since not all ownerships may have ecological goals and future climate change is anticipated. Natural disturbance-based management at large scales would not show the projected effects on landscape structure within a typical policy time frame in highly managed landscapes.

Stand-landscape integration in natural disturbance-based management of the southern boreal forest

Forest ecosystem management, based partly on a greater understanding of natural disturbance regimes, has many variations but is generally considered the most promising approach to accommodating biodiversity concerns in managed forested regions. Using the Lake Duparquet Forest in the southeastern Canadian boreal forest as an example, we demonstrate an approach that attempts to integrate forest and stand-level scales in biodiversity maintenance. The concept of cohorts is used to integrate stand age, composition and structure into broad successional or stand development phases. Mean forest age (MFA), because it partly incorporates historic variability of the regional fire cycle, is used as a target fire cycle. At the landscape level, forest composition and cohort objectives are derived from regional natural disturbance history, ecosystem classification, stand dynamics and a negative exponential age distribution based on a 140 year fire cycle. The resulting multi-cohort structure provides a framework for maintaining the landscape in a semi-natural age structure and composition. At the stand level, the approach relies on diversifying interventions, using both even-aged and uneven-aged silviculture to reflect natural stand dynamics, control the passage (“fluxes”) between forest types of different cohorts and maintain forest-level objectives. Partial and selective harvesting is intended to create the structural and compositional characteristics of mid- to late-successional forest types and, as such, offers an alternative to increasing rotation lengths to maintain ecosystem diversity associated with over-mature and old-growth forests. The approach does not however supplant the necessity for complementary strategies for maintaining biodiversity such as the creation of reserves to protect rare, old or simply natural ecosystems. The emphasis on maintaining the cohort structure and forest type diversity contrasts significantly with current even-aged management in the Canadian boreal forest and has implications for stand-level interventions, notably in necessitating a greater diversification of silvicultural practices including more uneven-aged harvesting regimes. The approach also presents a number of operational challenges and potentially higher risks associated with multiply stand entries, partial cutting and longer intervals between final harvests. There is a need for translating the conceptual model into a more quantitative silvicultural framework. Silvicultural trials have been established to evaluate stand-level responses to treatments and operational aspects of the approach.

Evaluating the effects of forest harvesting on littoral benthic communities within a natural disturbance-based management model

We quantified effects of watershed disturbance by forest fire and harvesting on littoral benthic macroinvertebrates from 12 lakes on the Boreal Shield of Québec and by fire on 15 lakes in the Boreal Sub-arctic Plains of Alberta. In Québec, water chemistry, epilithon and benthos were collected two years after five of the watersheds burned (mean = 87% of the watershed burned) and four were harvested (mean = 59% of the watershed harvested), with the remaining three watersheds acting as reference systems. In Alberta, samples were collected one year after eight of the watersheds burned (mean = 90% watershed area burned). Total macroinvertebrate biomass from burnt lakes was greater than from reference and harvested systems in Québec, and greater than reference systems in Alberta. Whereas total faunal densities did not differ among reference, harvested or burnt systems in Québec, total densities from burnt lakes in Alberta were twofold greater than reference lakes. Species richness did not differ among lake types in either Québec or Alberta. Analyses of covariance tests showed that neither total macroinvertebrate nor Chironomidae biomass from Boreal Shield lakes differed between harvested and burnt systems when means were adjusted for differences in percent watershed disturbance among lake types, whereas oligochaete biomass from harvested lakes was greater than that from burnt lakes when means were adjusted for the covariate of disturbance magnitude. Redundancy and canonical correspondence analyses, using biomass of the five most abundant taxonomic groups and selected environmental variables, showed that benthic communities on the Boreal Shield of Québec were strongly related with total phosphorus, epilithic Chl a, dissolved inorganic nitrogen and dissolved organic carbon. Biomass of the five most abundant taxonomic groups from sub-arctic Boreal Plains lakes were strongly related with color, soluble reactive phosphorus, total inorganic nitrogen and epilithic Chl a.