NATO Research Research Articles

The classification of freezing cold injuries - a NATO research task group position paper

ABSTRACT Introduction: Freezing cold injuries (FCI) are a common risk in extreme cold weather operations. Although the risks have long been recognised, injury occurrences tend to be sparse and geographically distributed, with relatively few cases to study in a systematic way. The first challenge to improve FCI medical management is to develop a common nomenclature for FCI classification. This is critical for the development of meaningful epidemiological reports on the magnitude and severity of FCI, for the standardisation of patient inclusion criteria for treatment studies, and for the development of clinical diagnosis and treatment algorithms. Methodology: A scoping review of the literature using PubMed and cross-checked with Google Scholar, using search terms related to freezing cold injury and frostbite, highlighted a paucity of published clinical papers and little agreement on classification schemes. Results: A total of 74 papers were identified, and 28 were included in the review. Published reports and studies can be generally grouped into four different classification schemes that are based on (1) injury morphology; (2) signs and symptoms; (3) pathophysiology; and (4) clinical outcome. The nomenclature in the different classification systems is not coherent and the discrete classification limits are not evidence based. Conclusions: All the classification systems are necessary and relevant to FCI medical management for sustainment of soldier health and performance in cold weather operations and winter warfare. Future FCI reports should clearly characterise the nature of the FCI into existing classification schemes for surveillance (morphology, symptoms, and appearance), identifying risk-factors, clinical guidelines, and agreed inclusion/exclusion criteria for a future treatment trial.

The Influence of the Quality of Digital Elevation Data on the Modelling of Terrain Vehicle Movement

This study investigated digital terrain models and options for their evaluation and effective usage. The most important result of this study was the introduction of the slope reduction method for low-detail elevation models. It enabled accurate results of passability analyses by performing adjustments of slopes. In addition, the goal was to determine the strengths and weaknesses of selected data for use in cross-country mobility analyses, followed by recommendations on how to use these databases efficiently to obtain accurate results. The selection of elevation databases (1 m, 5 m, 10 m, 30 m) was determined by the focus of data development projects of NATO and current scientific research projects of the Ministry of Defence of the Czech Republic. Key findings showed potential for use in practise for all tested elevation models. Efficient usage of low-detail models in CCM analyses is limited; nevertheless, they can be augmented with additional vector data or automated remote-sensing technologies.

Towards Secure and Interoperable Underwater Acoustic Communications: Current Activities in NATO IST-174 Research Task Group

Although the area of underwater acoustic networking is getting mature and critical for a wide variety of commercial applications, the lack of secure underwater communication standards presents a major impediment for adopting these networking technologies within NATO operations. The NATO Research Task Group IST-174 “Secure Underwater Communications for Heterogeneous Network-enabled Operations” aims to study and to demonstrate secure underwater communications in a holistic approach. In particular, this group's ambition is to define waveforms, network protocols and architectures that will enable underwater connectivity in a secure and interoperable way. To that effect, this paper presents various security concepts and communication systems currently under development that could be included in those standardisation efforts.

The NATO generic destroyer – a shared geometry for collaborative research into modelling and simulation of shipboard helicopter launch and recovery

The helicopter-ship dynamic interface is the environment above the landing deck of a ship where a helicopter pilot has to control the aircraft while contending with a moving deck and an unsteady airflow known as the ship airwake. Research into understanding this environment has included modelling the airwake using wind tunnel studies and Computational Fluid Dynamics, and has often used the Simple Frigate Shape (SFS), a generic ship geometry representative of a naval frigate. This paper reviews the contribution that the SFS has made to research into the helicopter-ship dynamic interface, and introduces a new ship geometry for future research. The new ship, developed within a NATO Research Task Group, is the NATO Generic Destroyer (NATO-GD), a concept ship with a simplified geometry that is more representative of a modern helicopter-enabled combat ship with a stealthy superstructure. As well as introducing the NATO-GD as a common platform for research, the paper also introduces a number of ship motion profiles to encourage new research that will include the effect of ship motion on the airwake. It is anticipated that future research on a common ship, with prescribed motion and adopting a common helicopter will lead to improved or new modelling methodologies.

Next-generation NATO reference mobility model complex terramechanics – Part 2: Requirements and prototype

In part 2 of this paper, the Complex Terramechanics (CT) software tools requirements recommended by the NATO research task group RTG-248 are presented along with example simulations from a CT prototype software tool which attempts to satisfy the requirements.

Next-generation NATO reference mobility model complex terramechanics – Part 1: Definition and literature review

The US army along with NATO member and partner nations’ militaries need an accurate software tool for predicting ground vehicle mobility (such as speed-made-good and fuel-consumption) on world-wide terrains where military vehicles may be required to operate. Currently, the NATO Reference Mobility Model (NRMM) is the only NATO recognized tool for assessing ground vehicle mobility. NRMM was developed from the 1960s to the 1980s and relies on steady-state empirical formulas which may not be accurate for new military ground vehicles. A NATO research task group (RTG-248) was established from 2016 to 2018 to develop the NG-NRMM (next-generation NRMM) software tool requirements and an NG-NRMM prototype which uses high-fidelity “simple” or “complex” terramechanics models for the terrain/soil along with modern 3D multibody dynamics software tools for modeling the vehicle. NG-NRMM Complex Terramechanics (CT) models are those that utilize full 3D soil models capable of predicting the 3D soil reaction forces on the vehicle surfaces (including tires, tracks, legs, and under body) and the 3D flow and deformation of the soil including both elastic and plastic deformation under any 3D loading condition. In Part 1 of this paper, an overview of the full spectrum of terramechanics models from the highest fidelity to the lowest fidelity is presented along with a literature review of CT ground vehicle mobility models.

Noise Radar—Overview and Recent Developments

This article describes the principles of noise radar, emphasizing the importance of its electronic counter–counter measure (electronic protection) and electromagnetic compatibility performance and reviews some noise radar demonstrators trialed by NATO Research Task Groups. We now understand how to build noise radars with performance comparable with, e.g., a low-power marine navigation radar. Furthermore, this article discusses the distinctive issues involved in verifying the performance of noise radars.

The Un-Holy Russo-Chinese alliance

ABSTRACT This essay argues that a Sino-Russian alliance has come into being over many years of the two states’ evolutionary policies. Although Vladimir Putin has emphasised that this is a multi-faceted relationship, this essay focuses exclusively on its military dimension. It comprises extensive inter-ministerial and inter-governmental cooperation, arms sales, joint exercises, and shared political orientation. While it may not be a formal alliance like NATO research, e.g. by Alexander Korolev, indicates that in general experts argue that what they have achieved is even better than an alliance.

Federating Tactical Edge Networks: Ways to Improve Connectivity, Security, and Network Efficiency in Tactical Heterogeneous Networks

This article elaborates on security and routing architectures for mobile tactical heterogeneous networks. It explores challenges and opportunities, and highlights the characteristics of these types of networks and their differences from static and deployed networks. These architectures have value for designing national military networks, as well as for realizing IP-based coalition networks at the mobile tactical edge. The article is based on work done within the NATO research group IST- 124, and may serve as input for standardization of future federated tactical networks.

Integrated defence workforces: Challenges and enablers of military–civilian personnel collaboration

Abstract Defence organisations are unique in that they comprise integrated military and civilian personnel working in partnership with each other (e.g., in headquarters, on bases, on missions, in academic settings). Many defence civilians are supervised by military supervisors and managers, while others are themselves responsible for managing military personnel. At the same time, despite often high levels of partnership and integration, military and civilian personnel are governed by very different personnel management systems, and have distinct cultures. These factors can affect the nature and quality of the collaboration and influence personnel outcomes and organisational effectiveness. Indeed, defence organisations are increasingly recognizing the importance of optimizing integration between their military and civilian workforces, with many adopting organisational terms implying that the military and civilian workforces form a cohesive whole: the Defence Team (Canada), the Whole Force Concept (United Kingdom), One Defence Team (Sweden), and Total Defence Workforce (New Zealand). This paper presents results from the Military–Civilian Personnel Survey (MCPS), which was administered in 11 nations as part of a NATO Research Task Group on the topic of military-civilian personnel collaboration and integration (NATO STO HFM RTG-226). This survey was the first systematic examination of large samples of military and civilian respondents, and the first to examine military–civilian relations from the perspective of both military and civilian personnel. The results presented here are based on three open-ended questions included in the survey, which asked respondents to identify 1) the most important factors for establishing and maintaining positive military-civilian personnel work culture and relations, 2) the challenges of working in a military-civilian environment, and 3) the main advantages of working in a military-civilian environment. Results of 5 nations, including Canada, Netherlands, New Zealand, Sweden, and the United Kingdom (n =1,513 military respondents and n = 2,099 defence civilians) are presented. Results indicate that mixed military-civilian work environments present both unique challenges and advantages, and identified the factors considered to be important for enhancing integration and collaboration between military and civilian personnel. Given that many cross-national patterns emerged, these findings provide useful insights for enhancing military and civilian personnel integration and collaboration across nations. *Adapted from the material first reported in Goldenberg, I. & Febbraro, A.R. (2018; in publication). Civilian and Military Personnel Integration and Collaboration in Defence Organizations. NATO Science and Technology Organization Technical Report - STO-TR-HFM-226. DOI 10.14339/STO-TR-HFM-226. ISBN: ISBN 978-92-837-2092-8.

Hypersonic Flow Simulation towards Space Propulsion Geometries

<div class="section abstract"><div class="htmlview paragraph">This work aims to expand the applicability of an open-source numerical tool to solve hypersonic gas dynamic flows for space propulsion geometries. This is done by validating the code using two well-known hypersonic test cases, the double cone and the hollow cylinder flare, used by the NATO Research and Technology Organization for the validation of hypersonic flight for laminar viscous-inviscid interactions (D. Knight, “RTO WG 10 - Test cases for CFD validation of hypersonic flight,” in 40th AIAA Aerospace Sciences Meeting & Exhibit, 2002). The Computational Fluid Dynamic (CFD) simulation is conducted using the two-temperature solver hy2Foam that is capable to study external aerodynamics in re-entry flows. In the present work the assessment of hy2Foam to solve hypersonic complex flow features with strong interactions including non-equilibrium effects was demonstrated. Freestream conditions with stagnation enthalpy of 5.44 MJ/kg and Mach number of 12.2, for the double cone case, and stagnation enthalpy of 5.07 MJ/kg and Mach number of 11.3 for the hollow cylinder case were considered. Comparison with newer existing numerical data and experimental data from LENS XX (Large Energy National Shock Expansion Tunnel Version 2) was also performed. Special attention was taken to the phenomenon of vibrational excitation of the molecules. Different vibrational non-equilibrium models were used and compared with the available data. Hy2Foam showed consistent results, with the vibrational non-equilibrium models reducing the discrepancies between numerical and experimental results.</div></div>

Numerical Assessment of Leading- and Trailing-Edge Control on a Swept Lambda Wing

The next generation of agile unmanned combat aerial vehicles has put focus on the stability and control of low observable platforms. Without the traditional fin for yaw control combined with delta wings, a challenging task has been presented to the research community. The NATO research group AVT-201 was formed to meet this challenge and build on previous knowledge gained on the complex vortical flow of rounded leading-edge delta wings. This paper presents two numerical studies made by the Swedish Defence Research Agency (FOI) and the French Aerospace Lab (ONERA) on traditional trailing-edge control and a more unconventional type of leading-edge flap control. Results from the FOI-developed flow solver Edge, using trailing-edge control, on a low observable 53 deg swept lambda wing model are compared to experimental data. The effect of leading-edge control is investigated by ONERA with a slightly smaller-scaled model, using the in-house code elsA, and validated by experimental data. Additional static and dynamic derivatives are evaluated by ONERA for the clean configuration.

ICCT Research Report NATO Project: Transitioning from Military Interventions to Long-Term Counter-Terrorism Policy

This NATO research project focused on assessing how military interventions can best prepare the ground for an effective long term counter-terrorism policy, looking at the interventions in Libya, Afghanistan and Mali. The combined insights of these case studies were distilled into a set of strategic policy recommendations, organised around the three phases of pre-intervention, entry and transition to local authority. The recommendations range from improving early warning methods to clarifying the strategic and political objectives of the intervention, and applying a whole of government approach in working with local partners. While based on the lessons identified and good practices of three very different and complex military operations (and their transitions), these lessons can help avoid common pitfalls that occur in times of crisis.

The Effect of Internal Wave-Related Features on Synthetic Aperture Sonar

In October 2012, the Centre for Maritime Research and Experimentation (CMRE, La Spezia, Italy) conducted trials from the NATO research vessel (RV) Alliance, off Elba Island, Italy. During this trial, data were collected by the Norwegian Defence Research Establishment (FFI, Kjeller, Norway) using a HUGIN autonomous underwater vehicle (AUV) with interferometric synthetic aperture sonar (SAS) in repeated passes. Large linear structures (tens of meters by several meters) observed in both the SAS images and SAS bathymetry during the initial pass were absent in data taken on a repeated pass the following day. We suggest that these phenomena were not true seafloor features, but were caused by features in the water column, known as boluses, which can form after breaking internal wave events. The changes observed in acoustical intensity and phase appear to be caused by the interaction of the acoustical field with the lower average sound-speed structure of the bolus, constructing features in both SAS imagery and SAS bathymetry that looked like seabed topography. In this paper, we present examples and give an interpretation of the results based on an acoustical ray model. We discuss different techniques for recognizing these phenomena: repeat pass imaging and interferometry, multilook and multiaperture processing, and moving target analysis.

Synthetic aperture sonar imaging of breaking internal wave structures

In October 2012, the Centre for Maritime Research and Experimentation (CMRE) conducted the ARISE’12 trials from the NATO research vessel Alliance, off of Elba island, Italy. During this trial, data were collected by the Norwegian Research Defence Establishment (FFI) using a HUGIN AUV with interferometric synthetic aperture sonar (SAS). Large visible structures in the SAS images and in the SAS bathymetries were caused by features in the water column, called boluses, which formed after breaking internal wave events. Variation in backscattered intensity from the seabed was caused by focusing of sound by the bolus and errors in bathymetry by the changes in phase as the acoustic energy moved through the lower sound speed bolus. A ray model and a 3D parabolic equation (PE) model were used to simulate the effects of the bolus on the acoustic field incident on the bottom and results compared favorably with SAS data. Models for the change in bolus size and speed as it propagated upslope also gave reasonable comparison to estimates obtained from SAS intensity images. [The work performed by APL was supported by the US Office of Naval Research.]

Deployable multiband passive/active radar for air defense (DMPAR)

A multinational effort has been conducted (2009-2011) under the umbrella of the Sensor & Electronics Technology (SET) panel of the NATO Research and Technology Organisation (RTO). The NATO panel tasks technical teams to investigate specific topics related to the armed forces. This technical team, (SET152), was tasked to study the capabilities of a future type of radar that combines passive and active modes of operation for a better performance in air defence applications. A system concept for a 'deployable multi-band passive active radar' DMPAR was developed, indicating the critical components, proposing solutions, specifying performance expectation, and proposing new approaches for system performance verification.

Flow Physics Analyses of a Generic Unmanned Combat Aerial Vehicle Configuration

Within the NATO Research and Technology Organisation Applied Vehicle Technology (AVT)-161 task group, titled “Assessment of Stability and Control Predictions for NATO Air and Sea Vehicles,” a 53 swept and twisted lambda wing with rounded leading edges is considered. In a first step, the symmetric flow conditions are analyzed in this paper in order to understand the corresponding flow physics. Experiments by the task group are used to develop proper numerical simulation tools for further applications in the design process of unmanned combat aerial vehicles as a part of future air-combat systems. The philosophy of the configuration under consideration is explained. The vortical flowfield is simulated using the DLR, German Aerospace Center TAU-Code applied with different turbulence models on various computational grids. Finally, a best practice is evaluated for medium and large angles of attack. A combination of these numerical results and experimental data lead to a proper understanding of the complex flow structure. Furthermore, this paper addresses the necessity for the predictability and understanding of controlled and uncontrolled flow separation, together with the interaction of the corresponding vortex systems in order to estimate stability and control issues for the entire flight envelope.

Integrated Computational/Experimental Approach to Unmanned Combat Air Vehicle Stability and Control Estimation

A comprehensive research program designed to investigate the ability of computational methods to predict stability and control characteristics of a generic unmanned combat air vehicle has been undertaken. The integrated approach to simulating static and dynamic stability characteristics was performed by the NATO Research and Technology Organization Task Group AVT-161. The vehicle named Stability and Control CONfiguration (SACCON) was the subject of an intensive computational and experimental study. The stability characteristics of the vehicle were evaluated via a highly integrated approach, where computational fluid dynamics and experimental results were used in a parallel and collaborative fashion. The results show that computational methods have made great strides in predicting static and dynamic stability characteristics, but several key issues need to be resolved before efficient, affordable, and reliable predictions are available.

A North Atlantic Treaty Organisation framework for life cycle costing

There is a long and documented history of both cost growth and estimating optimism within military system acquisition programmes. This is particularly the case for multinational programmes. As the nature of future acquisition programmes will be more multinational oriented, a common approach is required to generate realistic and consistent LCC estimates for a future system. This article presents the findings to date of the NATO Research and Technology Organisation (RTO) to develop a framework for life cycle costing. This framework consists of a generic cost breakdown structure (CBS), methods and models to be used and a guideline for conducting a Life Cycle Cost (LCC) analysis in all stages of the system's life cycle. All this is summarised in a Code of Practice. The article concludes presenting the next step in the NATO cost improvement process, i.e. to exercise the guideline, for example, programmes. An independent cost estimate (ICE) is conducted on three systems to demonstrate proof of concept. The results of these ICEs will be further used to improve the guideline and the Code of Practice.

The Myth of “Securing the Commons”

Not since President George W. Bush uttered the words ‘‘axis of evil’’ has a strategic phrase generated as much Beltway buzz as ‘‘securing the commons.’’ One of the few points of agreement between President Obama’s 2010 National Security Strategy, the 2010 Quadrennial Defense Review, the neoconservative Project for the New America’s Century’s ‘‘Rebuilding American Defense’’ report, various NATO research papers, and numerous think tank publications is that they all emphasize the importance of ‘‘safeguarding the global commons.’’ 1 And yet, what does that mean? Herein lies the problem: the term has multiple and often contradictory meanings. For the extreme left, it connotes imperialist designs; while to liberal institutionalists it means good world citizenry. To many realists, it is synonymous with overreach; while to conservatives it signals proper hegemonic activity. To the World Bank, it means protecting the world from global environmental challenges, 2 while to others it refers to sustaining American hard power in the post-Cold War era. 3 Even the term ‘‘commons’’ is