Native English Speakers Research Articles

A Journey through language and diversity in the English-speaking community: from its origins to the Colombian case

This article is meant to be a journey through the English community and its diversity, depicted by a variety of people, accents and dialects existing in several native English-speaking countries. It is a brief but meaningful historical background, which starts from the Anglo-Saxon invasion of the British Isles, in the fifth century of our era, and it continues until the spread of English as an international language. A fairly relevant part is also dedicated to the first dispersal of ‘Englishes’, people who migrated from the south-east of England mostly to North America and Australia, giving birth to new and meaningful linguistic varieties.
 The impact of English on higher education will be extensively analysed and discussed; this includes the brand-new role of twentieth-century English teachers, as well as the history of English in Colombia and its influence in culture, education and language policies, from its origins to its current handling.

Perception of impoliteness in refusal and response to it by native speakers of English and Persian

Impoliteness entails the employment of strategies oriented toward attacking face and bringing about social disruption. Although research on impoliteness has received great attention in the past two decades, how impolite utterances are perceived and what the recipients of impoliteness do in return has remained relatively under-addressed. The current study set out to examine native English and Persian speakers’ perceptions of and response to impoliteness in the production of the speech act of refusal. To this end, 90 native English speakers and 120 native Persian speakers were administered a written discourse completion task containing eight refusals that either observed politeness or contained various degrees of impoliteness. The results showed that native Persian speakers did not perceive any of the refusals to be impolite whereas three of the refusals were considered impolite by native English speakers. When reacting to impoliteness in refusals, native English speakers exploited a wider range of strategies than did Persian speakers. The results showed that social distance and power relations were of more significance for Persian speakers than for English speakers in perceiving the degree of impoliteness; however, in responding to an utterance perceived as impolite, English speakers were more likely to adopt offensive strategies to counter impoliteness, including positive and negative impoliteness strategies. These findings indicate both cross-cultural divergence and convergence in the perception of impoliteness and responses to impoliteness.

Production of Advice Speech Act by Non-Native Speakers of English: The Case of Kurdish EFL Learners

Speech act studies are commonly used in Second Language Acquisition research to assess second language learners’ pragmatic skills. Contrary to other speech acts, the speech act of offering advice has not been sufficiently studied and has not been a topic of cross-cultural or cross-linguistic research either, particularly among Kurdish EFL learners. The study aimed to conduct a comparative analysis of the advice speech act as expressed by Kurdish EFL learners and native English speakers. Thus, the study looked at the proficiency of Kurdish EFL users in selecting appropriate pragmatic expressions during the act of providing advice and discernible differences between male and female learners regarding the degree of (in)directness while advice is offered. Hence, the study included 82 undergraduate students from various universities in the Iraqi Kurdistan Region, particularly in Erbil. This group consisted of 42 females and 40 males, all majoring in English Language Teaching. Additionally, 30 native English speakers also took part in the research. Data collection was conducted through a 12-item discourse completion test, and the collected data were subsequently subjected to analysis using SPSS. The results unveiled a significant difference between Kurdish EFL learners and native speakers. It figured out that Kurdish EFL learners are not quite aware of the social power and social distance of interlocutors while giving advice. Additionally, it was indicated that female learners are more indirect in offering advice than their male counterparts. Moreover, the findings also unearthed a visible indication of first language pragmatic transfer, though it was not a variable of the study.

Lexical knowledge, memory and experience

Abstract Knowing a language involves knowing a large number of idiosyncratic units such as individual words and collocations which must be learned from the input. This study explores the role of implicit and explicit memory, as well as language experience, and specifically print exposure, with regard to adult native English speakers’ knowledge of vocabulary and collocations. Consistent with prior research, our findings reveal a strong correlation between print exposure and performance on both language tasks. However, contrary to predictions, there were no significant effects of either implicit or explicit memory on either task. We argue that this is most likely due to the fact that language learning relies primarily on memory for associations between form and meaning and between words rather than memory sequences of meaningless phonological forms.

Testing the Predictions of Surprisal Theory in 11 Languages

Abstract Surprisal theory posits that less-predictable words should take more time to process, with word predictability quantified as surprisal, i.e., negative log probability in context. While evidence supporting the predictions of surprisal theory has been replicated widely, much of it has focused on a very narrow slice of data: native English speakers reading English texts. Indeed, no comprehensive multilingual analysis exists. We address this gap in the current literature by investigating the relationship between surprisal and reading times in eleven different languages, distributed across five language families. Deriving estimates from language models trained on monolingual and multilingual corpora, we test three predictions associated with surprisal theory: (i) whether surprisal is predictive of reading times, (ii) whether expected surprisal, i.e., contextual entropy, is predictive of reading times, and (iii) whether the linking function between surprisal and reading times is linear. We find that all three predictions are borne out crosslinguistically. By focusing on a more diverse set of languages, we argue that these results offer the most robust link to date between information theory and incremental language processing across languages.

From Intercultural to Transcultural Communication: ELF in Multilingual Settings

The study centres around the idea that English is a global lingua franca for intercultural communication among multilingual speakers. Drawing on relevant literature in the field, the paper will highlight the intercultural and transcultural nature of English used as a multilingua franca (EMF). In particular, the study will explore learners’ attitudes with the purpose to identify how learners perceive the complex relation between culture and language and the factors which may affect intercultural communication through English. The study will analyse two sample groups. The first group is composed of students belonging to different first language backgrounds, mainly non-native speakers of English studying in an Italian university. The second group is composed of both native and non-native English speakers studying in the US and Canada. An online link to a questionnaire was sent via email to all participants and was used as a research instrument to collect quantitative data. It is highlighted that English used in multilingual settings cannot be analysed as a static and bounded entity with precise boundaries. On the contrary, English has transcended boundaries, in a fluid, dynamic and flexible process where borders are fuzzy and blurred and languages do not reflect well-defined national cultures. Therefore, it is suggested that language teaching practices should incorporate intercultural/transcultural oriented issues to provide learners with a more comprehensive knowledge of the multifaceted global English world and encourage a richer cultural and linguistic experience.

An inventory of human light exposure behaviour

Light exposure is an essential driver of health and well-being, and individual behaviours during rest and activity modulate physiologically relevant aspects of light exposure. Further understanding the behaviours that influence individual photic exposure patterns may provide insight into the volitional contributions to the physiological effects of light and guide behavioural points of intervention. Here, we present a novel, self-reported and psychometrically validated inventory to capture light exposure-related behaviour, the Light Exposure Behaviour Assessment (LEBA). An expert panel prepared the initial 48-item pool spanning different light exposure-related behaviours. Responses, consisting of rating the frequency of engaging in the per-item behaviour on a five-point Likert-type scale, were collected in an online survey yielding responses from a geographically unconstrained sample (690 completed responses, 74 countries, 28 time zones). The exploratory factor analysis (EFA) on an initial subsample (n = 428) rendered a five-factor solution with 25 items (wearing blue light filters, spending time outdoors, using a phone and smartwatch in bed, using light before bedtime, using light in the morning and during daytime). In a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) performed on an independent subset of participants (n = 262), we removed two additional items to attain the best fit for the five-factor solution (CFI = 0.95, TLI = 0.95, RMSEA = 0.06). The internal consistency reliability coefficient for the total instrument yielded McDonald’s Omega = 0.68. Measurement model invariance analysis between native and non-native English speakers showed our model attained the highest level of invariance (residual invariance CFI = 0.95, TLI = 0.95, RMSEA = 0.05). Lastly, a short form of the LEBA (n = 18 items) was developed using Item Response Theory on the complete sample (n = 690). The psychometric properties of the LEBA indicate the usability for measuring light exposure-related behaviours. The instrument may offer a scalable solution to characterise behaviours that influence individual photic exposure patterns in remote samples. The LEBA inventory is available under the open-access CC-BY license. Instrument webpage: https://leba-instrument.org/ GitHub repository containing this manuscript: https://github.com/leba-instrument/leba-manuscript.

A Contrastive Study of Boosters in a Corpus of Academic Spoken English

The present study intended to investigate the use of boosters in the Michigan Corpus of Academic Spoken English (MICASE). It examined whether native and non-native speakers of English differed from each other in boosters’ use based on Hyland (2005) across academic divisions, levels of interactivity, genders, and academic roles in academic spoken English. The results of the UNIANOVA inferential test revealed that not only did native speakers of English utilize boosters more frequently than non-native ones across the four variables, but they also employed boosters in a way that was specific to academic divisions, levels of interactivity, genders, and academic roles. Besides the influence of culture and proficiency on boosters’ use, this corpus analysis study found that native English speakers put their statements under focus so that they sound convincing to the audience in soft sciences more than the hard ones. It also indicated native speakers’ greater attempt to convince their audience of the truth in their propositions, show new pieces of information as true, and back their own manipulative or persuasive purposes in highly interactive speeches more than the other levels of interactivity. Furthermore, it was shown that female native speakers exceeded to express opinions, state a suggestion with confidence in their knowledge of the topic, and minimize the possibility of accepting other options in academic spoken English of the MICASE. Ultimately, it illustrated that native academic speakers of English of faculty role rated higher to strengthen their existence, position, argument, claims, and commitment to their speech.

Native vs. non-native teacher acceptance of intelligibility-focused ELF pronunciation models

English as a lingua franca, or ELF, is an approach to teaching English that prioritizes the needs of learners who plan to use the language primarily as a means of international communication. While this prioritization has particularly interesting implications for pronunciation instruction, little research exists about how teachers perceive ELF pronunciation teaching methods. To remedy this, the current study quantitatively investigates the relationship between teachers’ status as native or non-native speakers of English and their willingness to accept and utilize ELF pronunciation teaching methods. The study (unexpectedly) finds that native teachers agree more with the use of these methods and would be more willing to implement them than would non-native teachers. I thus theorize that this is due to differences in perspective stemming from the prestige that native varieties of English carry in the greater global context. I also suggest varied implications of the findings, especially how they could be used to implement ELF pronunciation pedagogy into teacher training programs.

Challenges and Opportunities for the Position and Function of Indonesian in the Future

The Indonesian language faces both challenges and opportunities in the future. On the one hand, the increasing globalization and the dominance of English as a global language pose a threat to the position and function of Indonesian. The main challenge to the position and function of Indonesian is the increasing dominance of English. English is the lingua franca of the world, and it is used in many international contexts. This can make it difficult for Indonesians to compete with native English speakers in the global market. Additionally, the use of English in Indonesia is increasing, especially among the younger generation. This can lead to a decline in the use of Indonesian, and a loss of the language's unique identity. The growing national consciousness in Indonesia is leading to a renewed appreciation for the language. This is reflected in the increasing use of Indonesian in government, education, and media. The future of the Indonesian language is uncertain. However, the language has the potential to thrive if Indonesians can embrace the challenges and seize the opportunities that lie ahead.

Processing of Shakespearean functional shift as a semantic anomaly in L2 English: Evidence from an ERP study

Functional shift, a productive word formation in English, converts the functional status of a word without changing its form. A previous event-related potential study reported that functional shift elicited left anterior negativity (LAN) and P600 effects in first language processing, suggesting that shifted words triggered syntactic processes in native English speakers. Using the same materials and experimental methods, this study investigated the processing of functional shift in English as a second language, asking Korean learners of English to make acceptability judgments of sentences containing a functional shift, a semantic incongruity, a double violation, or no violation. The results revealed that functional shift elicited significant N400 effects, indicating that Korean participants processed functionally shifted words as semantic anomalies. Our finding points to the possibility that the mental representation of functional shift differs in L1 and L2.

Primary School Pupils’ Use of Verb Collocations in Science Assessment: Patterns of Linguistic Behaviour by Language Background Factor

This article explores patterns of linguistic behaviour and challenges associated with low(er) linguistic competences in primary school learners in subject-specific areas of the curriculum. The study draws on science test data, specifically on two assessment tasks, collected from 209 primary school students, aged between 9 and 11 years (Key Stages 5 and 6 of the statutory framework for learning in England). The population sample is made up of learners from six state primary schools in Yorkshire and the Humber Region, UK. Some of the learners speak English as their mother tongue while others speak English as their second or third language. Learner test data were analysed in order to answer the following research questions: (1) What verb collocations do learners use when demonstrating their content knowledge on the topic of “separating solids and liquids” in Science? (2) Do English language learners (ELLs) and English native speaking learners (ENSs) use verb collocations differently? If so, what is the nature of these differences? The results revealed differences between linguistic performances in the two groups of learners. ENSs tended to produce natural collocations with motion verbs. ELLSs, however, faced challenges in producing idiomatic language. They also encountered more difficulties than ENSs in understanding assessment tasks’ instructions and/or in reporting subject-specific knowledge in response to the assessment tasks.

Learning English Under the Sounds of Air Raid Sirens: Analysing Undergraduate EFL Students’ Sustainable Learing Practices

Abstract The article presents a mixed-methods study that examines how undergraduate students of English as a Foreign Language (EFL) sustain their practices of learning English during the ongoing Russo-Ukrainian war in 2022–2023. In total, 33 undergraduate EFL students (henceforth – participants) took part in the study. In order to gain insight into their sustainable learning practices, the participants were requested to write a short reflective essay titled “My Thoughts on How I Learn English during the War”. The participants were instructed to write their essays in English within a one-week timeframe. Seeking to identify and classify a range of sustainable practices related to the ways the participants learnt English during the Russo-Ukrainian war, their reflective essays were analysed qualitatively and quantitatively. The analysis of the participants’ essays revealed the following learning practices that, according to the participants, helped them to sustain their EFL learning trajectory in the wartime EFL contexts: (i) participation in online EFL courses, (ii) communication with the native speakers of English on social networking sites (e.g., Instagram), and (iii) the combination of EFL learning activities offered at the participants’ university. The findings are discussed in detail further in the article through the lens of sustainable multilingualism development. Specifically, we argue that the development of multilingualism in the time of crises is feasible and sustainable, especially if it is coupled with an EFL learner’s inner psychological factors that are further facilitated by the external support offered by the digital learning environments that are (i) institutionalised and systematic, and (ii) extra-mural and unstructured (in other words, digitally wild).

Speech markers of depression dimensions across the spectrum of cognitive functions

AbstractBackgroundDepression is a common among patients with cognitive impairment and encompass different dimensions, which may vary in their association with cognitive outcomes and biological substrates. Previous studies have shown a shift toward the use of more negative words in written documents and social media posts of depressed patients with intact cognitive function. To objectively characterize depression dimensions across the spectrum of cognitive functions, we explored their association with the emotion‐based measures of speech in participants of memory clinic.MethodsThis study capitalized on semi‐structured digitized speech data collected at the hospital of University of Pennsylvania. Subjects (n = 302, 40% female, mean age = 67.13±9.59 years, education = 15.82±2.84 years, Mini‐Mental Status Exam (MMSE) = 24.36±5.04) were native English speakers with cognition ranging from normal cognition to mild dementia. Participants were instructed to describe the Cookie Theft scene using complete sentences and their descriptions were digitally recorded. Emotion‐based measures of the content words, including valence (i.e., the pleasantness), arousal (the intensity of emotions), and dominance (the word power), were rated based on published norms. Each emotional measure was averaged per speaker. Depression dimensions were defined based on itemized Geriatric Depression Scale – 15 item (GDS‐15) including Dysphoria, Withdrawal‐Apathy–Vigor (WAV), anxiety, hopelessness and Subjective Memory Complaint. Non‐parametric partial correlations examined associations between speech emotion‐based measures and depression scores adjusting for age, sex, education and MMSE.ResultsOverall depression score (total GDS) did not correlate with the speech measures. However, when examining specific depression dimensions, higher WAV and hopelessness correlated with reduced valence (WAV: r = ‐0.21, P = 0.00, hopelessness: r = ‐ 0.14, P = 0.01) and dominance (WAV: r = ‐ 0.18, P = 0.001, hopelessness: r = ‐ 0.16, P = 0.004). We did not find a significant association between emotional word scores and other depression dimensions.ConclusionPatients with high apathy and hopelessness select words that carry more negative and less powerful emotional valence. Our findings highlight the potential applicability of speech biomarkers in characterization of depression dimensions across spectrum of cognitive and are consistent with previous findings that reported more negative bias and more submissive speech in depressed patients.

Translation and adaptation of a questionnaire for assessing cognitive domains based on the diagnostic criteria of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders ‐ DSM‐5 for neurocognitive disorders

AbstractBackgroundThe Cognitive Domains and Functional Assessment Questionnaire (QACDF) assesses cognitive and functional decline based on the DSM‐5 criteria for Neurocognitive Disorders¹. The QACDF has two versions, one for the patient and another for the informant. It is composed of 30 items, each assessed by a likert scale. This questionnaire has appropriate semantic characteristics for the Brazilian older adult population.MethodThe objective of this study was to translate, adapt and assess the semantic, idiomatic, experiential and conceptual equivalence of the QACDF. Firstly, the QADCF original version in Portuguese was translated to English by two Bilingual translators, a non‐specialist linguist and a specialist in the field. After this, the two translators (T1 and T2) together with a mediator translator synthesized the translations in a common version (T3). Then, the T3 version was back‐translated into Portuguese by a Bilingual translator, blind to the original version². The three versions (original, translated and back‐translated) were assessed by a committee of specialists. The committee was composed of the initial translators, an English native speaker, an expert in the methodology and the main researchers.ResultThe QACDF Items were adjusted to conceive equivalent expressions for the target language, as well as to assess cognitive domains and the functionality of daily living of English speakers. Semantic, idiomatic, experiential and conceptual equivalence were debated by the committee until consensus was reached.ConclusionThe translation of the instrument followed the proposed methodology by Beaton et col. However, while the Brazilian Portuguese versions have been assessed by two pilot studies, pilot studies are still needed to further adjust the questionnaires for English speakers.

Extensive residence in a second language environment modifies perceptual strategies for suprasegmental categorization.

Languages differ in the importance of acoustic dimensions for speech categorization. This poses a potential challenge for second language (L2) learners, and the extent to which adult L2 learners can acquire new perceptual strategies for speech categorization remains unclear. This study investigated the effects of extensive English L2 immersion on speech perception strategies and dimension-selective-attention ability in native Mandarin speakers. Experienced first language (L1) Mandarin speakers (length of U.K. residence > 3 years) demonstrated more native-like weighting of cues to L2 suprasegmental categorization relative to inexperienced Mandarin speakers (length of residence < 1 year), weighting duration more highly. However, both the experienced and the inexperienced Mandarin speakers continued to weight duration less highly and pitch more highly during musical beat categorization and struggled to ignore pitch and selectively attend to amplitude in speech, relative to native English speakers. These results suggest that adult L2 experience can lead to retuning of perceptual strategies in specific contexts, but global acoustic salience is more resistant to change. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Rational Sentence Interpretation in Mandarin Chinese.

Previous work has shown that English native speakers interpret sentences as predicted by a noisy-channel model: They integrate both the real-world plausibility of the meaning-the prior-and the likelihood that the intended sentence may be corrupted into the perceived sentence. In this study, we test the noisy-channel model in Mandarin Chinese, a language taxonomically different from English. We present native Mandarin speakers sentences in a written modality (Experiment 1) and an auditory modality (Experiment 2) in three pairs of syntactic alternations. The critical materials are literally implausible but require differing numbers and types of edits in order to form more plausible sentences. Each sentence is followed by a comprehension question that allows us to infer whether the speakers interpreted the item literally, or made an inference toward a more likely meaning. Similar to previous research on related English constructions, Mandarin participants made the most inferences for implausible materials that could be inferred as plausible by deleting a single morpheme or inserting a single morpheme. Participants were less likely to infer a plausible meaning for materials that could be inferred as plausible by making an exchange across a preposition. And participants were least likely to infer a plausible meaning for materials that could be inferred as plausible by making an exchange across a main verb. Moreover, we found more inferences in written materials than spoken materials, possibly a result of a lack of word boundaries in written Chinese. Overall, the fact that the results were so similar to those found in related constructions in English suggests that the noisy-channel proposal is robust.

Exploring barriers to the use of trust translation services by pharmacy staff

Abstract Introduction 4.1 million people in England and Wales do not speak English as a first language.1 Whilst representing only 7.1% of the population, data suggests this cohort face greater barriers to effective healthcare than native English speakers. One study found they experience twice the rate of medication errors.2 One solution is the use of translation services in healthcare settings. However, national evidence shows service underutilisation.2 Research cites long waiting times, loss of phone connection and translator lack of familiarity with National Health Service (NHS) as contributors.3 Anecdotal data suggests underutilisation of services at Oxford Road Campus (ORC) of Manchester University Foundation Trust (MFT). 18% of ORC patients are not native English speakers, meaning there is a potential risk to patient outcomes if translation services are underutilised. Aim To explore the barriers pharmacy staff at ORC of MFT face when accessing the local translation service for patients; where its use would be appropriate and/or beneficial. Methods A literature search was conducted regarding use of translation services by healthcare staff and existing barriers to use. An interview proforma was formulated using the literature findings, existing questionnaires, discussions with a University of Manchester research Pharmacist and the group’s aims and objectives. The questions were formulated into the Qualtrics XMTM software. Data was collected using structured interviews to increase capture of qualitative data. The target audience was Trust pharmacy staff with patient contact. The sampling technique was opportunistic and captured 45 respondents. Quantitative data was analysed through Microsoft Excel, whilst qualitative data was analysed using thematic grouping. No ethical approval was required as this was a service evaluation. Results 97.8% of respondents had encountered at least one patient without English as a first language. Of these, 100% were aware of trust translation services, despite only 7% of staff having received training. Only 25% of participants reported the trust translation service was their primary method for translation. Preferred methods of overcoming language barriers were use of relatives/next of kin or a multilingual staff member. The most reported barriers in order of frequency were time, ease of access and preferring alternative methods. Some participants who had never used the service reported concerns over the accuracy of translation and high costs of the service. 78% of respondents indicated that they would use the service if barriers were rectified. When asked about features of an ideal service, exact waiting times, use without a PIN and dedicated ward phones were the most popular responses. Discussion/Conclusion Results obtained show numerous barriers to service use and accessibility. Of note, several staff who reported barriers had never used the service. These perceived barriers often related to factually incorrect views of the service such as cost and accuracy of translation. Thus, training for staff in conjunction with improvements to the service would increase utilisation of the translation service and therefore patient safety. One imitation of our project was that no data exists on number of patient facing staff so it is not possible to quantify the percentage of staff captured.

On null-subject languages and the Overt Pronoun Constraint: A comparison of English, Mandarin and Japanese

This study reports on findings from two experiments investigating the interpretive patterns of overt pronouns in an embedded subject position with three types of matrix subjects (i.e. a referential NP, a quantified NP, or a wh-phrase) in Mandarin, English, and Japanese. According to the Overt Pronoun Constraint (OPC), overt pronouns in null-subject languages cannot have bound-variable interpretation, i.e. they cannot be bound by a quantified NP or a wh-phrase. This constraint has been assumed to be universal and accessible for learners at early stages of second language (L2) acquisition. The results of Experiment 1 show that, although Mandarin is a null-subject language, Mandarin and English native speakers as well as L2 learners of both languages demonstrated similar patterns of interpretation, accepting both coreference readings and bound-variable readings, the latter being contrary to the prediction of the OPC. The results of Experiment 2 show that Japanese native speakers differed from Mandarin native speakers in that the former accepted both coreference readings and bound-variable readings at chance levels. These findings clearly demonstrate that the OPC cannot be characterized as a property of null-subject languages generally, given the lack of effect in Mandarin, and there are cross-linguistic variations in interpretive patterns for overt pronouns among languages that exhibit the effect.

Implementing AI Replika in higher education speaking classes: Benefits and challenges

The demand from students for native English speakers as interlocutors justifies the importance of this research. Because of the nation's location and financial constraints, speaking course participants are said to lack experience speaking with native speakers. Gaining a tangible understanding of how AI Replika can be used to replace native speakers’ role in becoming students’ source of native speaker is the anticipated outcome of this project. This study investigates the benefits and difficulties of using AI Replika in speaking classes. With the help of AI Replika, students may practice speaking English in real time or directly with the use of artificial intelligence. The features used by students can be either chatbot or speaking robot. This study used a descriptive qualitative methodology. A case study methodology is applied. Interviewing and participant observation were employed as data collection methods. Three basic types of triangulations are used in data validity techniques: theoretical, methodological, and source data triangulation. Based on the results, it shows that AI replica can be used as the alternative on the absence of native speaker in practicing speaking. However, the role of teachers in the classroom still cannot be replaced by the AI. Students feel that although AI Replika brings benefit for them to practice speaking before class, however, they still need teachers to explain the context of the speaking content. Students also feel that the AI Replika brings more literal meaning of an idea rather than able to understand the cultural meaning behind the talk. In the end, AI technology can improve language acquisition with a well-balanced approach, but real native speaker presence for more humanist approach is still needed.