Native America Research Articles

Archaeology and Social Justice in Native America

Over the past 20 years, collaboration has become an essential aspect of archaeological practice in North America. In paying increased attention to the voices of descendant and local communities, archaeologists have become aware of the persistent injustices these often marginalized groups face. Building on growing calls for a responsive and engaged cultural heritage praxis, this forum article brings together a group of Native and non-Native scholars working at the nexus of history, ethnography, archaeology, and law in order to grapple with the role of archaeology in advancing social justice. Contributors to this article touch on a diverse range of critical issues facing Indigenous communities in the United States, including heritage law, decolonization, foodways, community-based participatory research, and pedagogy. Uniting these commentaries is a shared emphasis on research practices that promote Indigenous sovereignty and self-determination. In drawing these case studies together, we articulate a sovereignty-based model of social justice that facilitates Indigenous control over cultural heritage in ways that address their contemporary needs and goals.

Culturally tailored substance use interventions for Indigenous people of North America: a systematic review

PurposeThe purpose of the current study is to conduct a systematic review of peer-reviewed work on culturally tailored interventions for alcohol and drug use in Indigenous adults in North America. Substance use has been reported as a health concern for many Indigenous communities. Indigenous groups experienced the highest drug overdose death rates in 2015, the largest percentage increase in the number of deaths over time from 1999 to 2015 compared to any other racial group. However, few Indigenous individuals report participating in treatment for alcohol or drug use, which may reflect the limited engagement that Indigenous groups have with treatment options that are accessible, effective and culturally integrative.Design/methodology/approachElectronic searches were conducted from 2000 to April 21, 2021, using PsycINFO, Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature, MEDLINE and PubMed. Two reviewers classified abstracts for study inclusion, resulting in 18 studies.FindingsMost studies were conducted in the USA (89%). Interventions were largely implemented in Tribal/rural settings (61%), with a minority implemented in both Tribal and urban contexts (11%). Study samples ranged from 4 to 742 clients. Interventions were most often conducted in residential treatment settings (39%). Only one (6%) intervention focused on opioid use among Indigenous people. Most interventions addressed the use of both drugs and alcohol (72%), with only three (17%) interventions specifically intended to reduce alcohol use.Originality/valueThe results of this research lend insight into the characteristics of culturally integrative treatment options for Indigenous groups and highlight the need for increased investment in research related to culturally tailored treatment across the diverse landscape of Indigenous populations.

The Textual Construction of North American Indigenous Peoples in the Account of Cook's Third Voyage

AbstractBy foregrounding the stratification of cultural agencies underlying the text, this article analyses the conceptualization of human otherness in the official account of James Cook's third voyage, published in 1784. The close reading focuses on the case study of indigenous people encountered during Cook's journey up the west coast of North America. A Voyage to the Pacific Ocean is an excellent vantage point from which to examine the intimate connections between time, power, and knowledge, which characterized eighteenth‐century European culture. Drawing on existing scholarship, this study takes a closer look at John Douglas's hitherto neglected introduction to the first edition of the account, treating it as a conceptual threshold to the text and addressing the relationship between it and the main body of the account.

New speakers and language change in Diné Bizaad (Navajo)

Aims and objectives: This paper analyzes the extent to which new speakers are participating in an ongoing phonological change in Diné Bizaad (Navajo). The implications of these patterns are discussed as they relate to theories of new speakers and language change. Methodology design: I apply a variationist methodology to analyze the pronunciation of lateral affricates from speakers representing different generations and language learning contexts. I focus on comparing new speakers, who report acquiring the language primarily through school or in a language program, with their age-equivalent peers. Data and analysis: The data come from interviews recorded with 51 bilingual Diné Bizaad-English participants, ages 18–75. This includes four new speakers. The analysis focuses on variation in the lateral affricates in connected speech samples and an oral translation task. Findings/conclusion: Results reveal that new speakers diverge from other younger participants in their lack of participation in an ongoing change in the affricates. Instead, new speakers more closely resemble middle-aged and older speakers. Originality: This study applies the new speaker framework to an Indigenous North American language, an under-represented sociolinguistic context within the literature. These findings provide a counterexample to the more frequent finding of new speakers linguistically diverging from older, traditional speakers. Significance/implications: These results are interpreted as arising due to literacy practices, language usage networks, and community values. The orthographic representation of the affricates is thought to inhibit sound change. At the same time, due to their more formal language learning background, new speakers have developed a self-monitored speech style oriented toward the prestigious, older speakers. A lack of peer group language usage is thought to prevent the development of linguistically or ideologically distinct new speaker varieties. The confluence of these factors means that instead of constituting agents of language change, new speakers are more similar to older participants.

Impact on mental health and wellbeing in Indigenous communities due to land loss resulting from industrial resource development: protocol for a systematic review

BackgroundIndigenous Peoples are impacted by industrial resource development that takes place on, or near, their communities. Existing literature on impacts of industrial resource development on Indigenous Peoples primarily focus on physical health outcomes and rarely focus on the mental health impacts. To understand the full range of long-term and anticipated health impacts of industrial resource development on Indigenous communities, mental health impacts must be examined. It is well-established that there is a connection between the environment and Indigenous wellbeing, across interrelated dimensions of mental, physical, emotional, and spiritual health.MethodsThis paper identifies how the Community Advisory Team and a team of Indigenous and settler scholars will conduct the review. The literature search will use the OVID interface to search Medline, Embase, PsycINFO, and Global Health databases. Non-indexed peer-reviewed journals related to Indigenous health or research will be scanned. Books and book chapters will be identified in the Scopus and PsycINFO databases. The grey literature search will also include Google and be limited to reports published by government, academic, and non-profit organizations. Reference lists of key publications will be checked for additional relevant publications, including theses, dissertations, reports, and other articles not retrieved in the online searches. Additional sources may be recommended by team members. Included documents will focus on Indigenous Peoples in North America, South America, Australia, Aotearoa New Zealand, and Circumpolar regions, research that reports on mental health, and research that is based on land loss connected to dams, mines, agriculture, or petroleum development. Literature that meets the inclusion criteria will be screened at the title/abstract and full-text stages by two team members in Covidence. The included literature will be rated with a quality appraisal tool and information will be extracted by two team members; a consensus of information will be reached and be submitted for analysis.DiscussionThe synthesized evidence from this review is relevant for land use policy, health impact assessments, economic development, mental health service planning, and communities engaging in development projects.Systematic review registrationRegistered in the International Prospective Register of Systematic Reviews (PROSPERO; Registration number CRD42021253720)

Global Origins of Probabilism

In contrast to traditional historiography which, until recently, has generally explained the origin of probabilism based on works written in the European academic context, this article explores pragmatic works written mostly by —and for— experienced actors making practical use of their knowledge in fields such as trade, commerce and sacraments within the new global horizon of the Hispanic Monarchy. I propose a new, more global explanation of the progressive emergence of probabilism as a theological doctrine and method for the resolution of cases. Particular attention is granted to the use of probabilistic arguments in works of American missionary literature and writings of moral theology produced in the changing context of the central decades of the sixteenth century. This analysis allows us to understand their focus on evaluating probable alternatives in unfamiliar contexts and with unforeseen doubts that already existed in Vitoria’s ideas on economy and mission. As I show in this article, this emerging focus is a tendency that later Salamancan disciples such as the novohispano theologians Alonso de la Vera Cruz (1509-1584) and Tomás de Mercado (1523-1575) went on to radicalize by appealing to the need to follow merely probable opinions in a growing range of cases. Both of them adapted European moral and religious norms to a wide range of specifically early modern problems. The evaluation of the family or marriage customs of the indigenous American peoples and of frequent practices in the transatlantic economy such as money exchange and sale on credit were among the most discussed.

An Insufficient Canon: The Popol Wuj, Book of Mormon, and Other Scriptures

An Insufficient Canon: The Popol Wuj, Book of Mormon, and Other Scriptures

Documenting What’s In Almost Every Narrative: Free Relative Clauses in Kiksht

This paper presents a detailed morphosyntactic investigation of free relative clauses (FRs) in Kiksht, an Indigenous Native North American Language spoken at the Warm Springs Reservation in Oregon. A type of headless relative clause, FRs are embedded clauses that bear formal affinity to wh‑ interrogative clauses yet carry no interrogative meaning and distribute like arguments and adjuncts. Two FR types are attested in Kiksht: maximal FRs, which behave like definite expressions, and existential FRs, which behave like indefinites. A third type of non-interrogative clause is also discussed, which is similar to a free-choice FR but also bears likeness to wh‑ correlatives and wh‑ conditionals. All FR types in Kiksht are formally indistinct, their type and meaning being contextually determined. Kiksht free relatives are also unlike headed relative clauses in the language. Typologically, orienting to Kiksht is relevant because there is little documentation of FRs in Indigenous Native North American languages.

Trans and Genderqueer Subjects in Medieval Hagiography

Trans and Genderqueer Subjects in Medieval Hagiography

"The Chiefs Now in This City": Indians and the Urban Frontier in Early America by Colin G. Calloway

Reviewed by: "The Chiefs Now in This City": Indians and the Urban Frontier in Early America by Colin G. Calloway Kate Fullagar "The Chiefs Now in This City": Indians and the Urban Frontier in Early America. By Colin G. Calloway. New York: Oxford University Press, 2021. 283 pages. Cloth, ebook. At the enormous conference between Indigenous and colonial leaders in Augusta, Georgia, in November 1763, a Cherokee leader from Chota staged a piece of political theater. Kittagusta, "the Prince of Chota," stretched out before the assembled delegates "a string of beads with three knots." He explained that the first knot was Chota, the leading town of the Overhill Cherokee. The last knot was Charleston, the main town of the Carolina colonists. The knot in between was Fort Prince George, the small British encampment that had served as a major trading depot through the 1750s and was the site of a treacherous colonial massacre of Cherokee hostages in 1760. Three years later, Kittagusta expressed hope that the talks between each town "shall always be kept straight."1 Kittagusta's theatrical flourish speaks to many of the themes of Colin G. Calloway's "The Chiefs Now in This City": Indians and the Urban Frontier in Early America. Firstly, the book shows how strongly Native Americans in the early modern era incorporated colonial centers into their own geographies. Secondly, it demonstrates that they understood those centers in relational and comparative ways to their own towns. Finally, Calloway emphasizes a history of nonviolent exchange and communication between Natives and European settlers in early North America that is often swamped by the more dramatic episodes of warfare and bloodshed. Kittagusta's pointed inclusion of Fort Prince George's darker role in the Cherokees' past, as a site of massacre as well as of trade, also reminded his audience that he never forgot the deception and danger that colonists always posed—a theme to which Calloway's book gestures perhaps less than Kittagusta would have liked. Though Calloway flags the "dispossession and racial violence" (194) of colonial American history, he focuses most of his attention on the way that Indians negotiated for peace, trade, and work, and on how they "adapted to new pressures" (3). This decision to emphasize the more peaceful forms of encounter between Natives and settlers is deliberate; noting the magnitude of work—including his own—that already exists on treaties and frontier violence, Calloway argues here for a deeper inquiry into [End Page 458] all the other forms of interaction between these two groups of people in North America. This quest leads him to the colonial town. As Calloway remarks, "Chiefs Now in This City" were far more common sights than either contemporaries or later historians have recognized. He stresses that the image of Indians beating a steady if melancholy retreat further and further into the so-called backcountry as the settler revolution advanced westward with relentless force is a damaging myth that obscures how "Indian people frequently moved toward rather than away from them [urban areas], as they responded to new centers of power … and took advantage of new economic opportunities" (3). In other words, Calloway shows that Indians recognized dividing lines in the middle of newcomer settlements rather than beyond their horizons and also that these edges could be the basis of productive as well as destructive relationships. He adds to Patrick Spero's recent dictum that frontiers existed "anywhere Indians were" by revealing how, from a Native perspective, they popped up "anywhere colonists were" (4).2 There are disadvantages to Calloway's emphasis on the positive elements of Native-European interactions, though. Balancing narratives of tragedy and possibility is the hardest and most common problem for any historian of Native America; to gain a fuller understanding in this case, "The Chiefs Now in This City" might best be read alongside some of Calloway's own earlier books, especially The American Revolution in Indian Country and Pen and Ink Witchcraft, which more fully detailed Indian bloodshed and cultural loss.3 "The Chiefs Now in This City" covers the entire Eastern Seaboard of North America, from the Mi'kmaqs in Canada's eastern Maritimes to the Creek near Saint...

From Poverty to Assimilation

Thomas Jefferson has long been noted for his vested academic interest in Native Americans, whom he considered to be a doomed, yet, through assimilation, a redeemable race—who in his view were people living in poverty; an aspect of Jefferson’s vision of the indigenous peoples of North America which has so far been ignored. This essay therefore claims that Jefferson’s general concern with them was also fueled by his understanding of Native Americans as people whose way of life relegated them into the condition of indigence by definition—a state Jefferson wished to alleviate. Drawing on Jefferson’s ideas of political economy, combined with a perspective provided by early American poverty studies, I argue that his republican ideal of free-holding male household heads was also a key to his conception of Native American poverty as well as to his solution to it. In his view, gender roles and practices within the Native communities prevented male heads from adapting to the Euro-American ideals. In Jefferson’s eyes, women’s contribution to basic activities of sustenance, thus, rendered their spouses incapable of providing for their families by the Euro-American standard of the gender division of labor. He regarded them as indigents because of their actual mode of sustenance, but a desirable shift to white ways, Jefferson implied, held the promise for them to get out of destitution. (ZV)

Casting spectres

ABSTRACT Megalithic monuments to colonial rule, the High Courts of Bombay, Calcutta and Madras tower over their respective cityscapes. What do such anachronic and anachronistic architectural presences mean for the populace? How do these looming stones inform the indigenous practice of contemporary law? What sensibility of jurist and the juridical do these lapidary structures inculcate, impose or instil? For Khorakiwala, their khora, tone or reverberations imbued her life as a student, and formed her sense of legal identity and identification, even generating a sense of pride and belonging. When she returns to study these reliquary juggernauts, these chattering anglophonic stones, these vestigial turrets and towers of imperial presence that continue in umbrageous inhabitation of independent India, she confronts resistance and exclusion while also, through meticulously detailed observation, learns to see the markings of local contestation that challenge the immediate sense of external imposition. The buildings are haunted by other spectres and even in their spatial organization and plastic expressions also relay the figures and mythemes of a resurgent sense Indian lore and law.

Use of wood by indigenous peoples of the Eastern Amazon, Brazil

Summary The Brazilian Amazon has the world’s largest concentration of indigenous American peoples, but many environmental threats have affected the preservation of this enormous human ethnocultural heritage. This study identified the species and studied the different uses of wood by two indigenous ethnic groups in Southeastern Pará, Brazil, namely the “Gavião” and “Suruí”. Ten taxa were identified, distributed in eight botanical families, with five being identified to genus and five to species levels. The wood of Bertholletia excelsa, an endangered forest species in Brazil, is important in the material culture of the Suruí indigenous people. The indigenous ethnic groups studied preferentially use medium density wood for building and high-density wood for hunting and warfare artefacts. The technological properties of wood justify its use by the indigenous peoples studied. We caution that the increasing environmental threats in Indigenous Lands within the Brazilian Amazon harm the preservation of the ethnocultural heritage of indigenous peoples.

Reforesting Native America with Drones: Rooting Carbon with Arborescent Governmentality and Decolonial Geoengineering

The Confederated Colville Tribes collaborated with DroneSeed, a forestry drone start-up, to use drones to replant their tribal forest after a devastating fire. Using concepts from Bernard Stiegler to interrogate ethnographic data, this article argues that forestry drones are pharmaka: their biopolitics can be therapeutic, that is, negentropic, capable of reversing ecological simplification. Drone forestry is a type of arborescent governmentality, a tree-based computer-coded attempt to control the growth of a forest. For the Colville, this negentropy is also an act of sovereignty that protects culture and honors multispecies relationships. For DroneSeed, it is an experiment in negentropic geoengineering, an attempt to profitably leverage technologies and biological regeneration to sequester carbon and reduce global existential risk. Ultimately the project was not the success desired; the failure of technoliberal projects that blend ecological and economic liberalism shows that a more radical approach might be necessary to root carbon and slow capitalism.

He ‘is supposed to have with him forged Certificates of his Freedom, and Passes’: Slavery, (Im)mobility, and the Creolized Counter-Knowledge of Resistance

ABSTRACT Within the institution of Transatlantic Slavery, across the Americas white enslaver control extended to the physical movement of those they held in bondage. This article adopts an extended conceptualization of creolization – the transformation of cultures, societies, and populations within the context of the contact between Europeans, enslaved Africans, and colonized and enslaved Indigenous peoples in the Americas – to explore the intersection of and conflicts between knowledge production and enslaved mobility. Through two case studies that analyse fugitive slave advertisements and the use of passes in the eighteenth-century British province of Quebec, I argue that these primary sources reveal evidence of a creolized counter-knowledge through which the enslaved resisted enslaver control through self-directed mobility in Canada.

The Wabanaki Approach to Treating Opiate Use Disorder among Indigenous North Americans

IntroductionAddictions are prominent among indigenous people in North America in relation to historical and contemporary trauma.ObjectivesWe describe the approach emerging in our services for the five indigenous tribes of Maine (the Wabanaki Confederacy) for culturally sensitive treatment of opiate use disorder.MethodsIn our auto-ethnographic approach, we introduce or re-introduce participants to cultural beliefs, values, and methods for treating addictions, inclusive of narrative methods (storytelling) which receive greater acceptance by indigenous and marginalized peoples. Indigenous philosophy states that we see the world using the stories that we have absorbed or constructed to explain our perceptions. Using substances is a story that is connected to poverty and adverse childhood events. We create new stories to develop a sense of agency, the sense that one’s actions can make a difference in one’s life.ResultsWe present the lessons learned and the results of our using this approach with a tribal population in Maine. Some key concepts include (1) reframing the person’s self-story about being addicted within a threat-power-meaning network, (2) working with stories about the spirit of the addiction and the consequences of ingesting spirit-laden substances without knowing their songs and protocols, (3) constructing future-self-narratives that explore right relationships and meaningful conduct, (4) constructing stories about the intergenerational transmission of addictions and exploring the question of “whom will be the recipient of your addiction?”ConclusionsWe come to understand that the client sets their goals and defines what recovery means for them, which is the heart of a harm reduction approach.DisclosureNo significant relationships.

Qualitative Study of Mental Health Improvements with Traditional Cultural Healers in North America

Introduction Traditional cultural healers -- their methods and their results -- are often invisible to conventional medical practitioners. When confronted with a result that does not make sense, we often ignore it.ObjectivesWe wanted to understand the process that happened between people and traditional cultural healers when these people experienced substantial improvement in mental health without psychiatric treatment.MethodsWe collected 56 case stories from people who consulted traditional cultural healers instead of conventional medical practitioners for serious mental health problems. We confirmed the stories with family members and interviewed the healers as well. We used constructivist grounded theory to explore commonalities in the stories from the clients’ points of view and from the healers’ perspectives. The context is indigenous people in North America.ResultsPatients had a range of diagnoses, including psychotic disorders (12), bipolar disorder (28), and evere unipolar depression (16). Co-morbid anxiety disorders were common (22). Improvement in mental health was associated with participation in ceremonies within a community, building relationships with members of that community, engaging in prescribed daily practices endorsed by that community, with a resulting report of feeling increases in social and spiritual connectedness. The healers believed strongly that the embeddedness in community contributed to the results and that spirit beings played important roles in helping people feel better. The use of psychiatric medications was minimal.ConclusionsPsychiatry can acknowledge that people can have substantial improvements in mental health when working with traditional cultural healers outside of conventional settings. Studying these settings and results can improve conventional practice.DisclosureNo significant relationships.

Undoing the Knots: Five Generations of American Catholic Anti-Blackness by Maureen H. O’Connell

Reviewed by: Undoing the Knots: Five Generations of American Catholic Anti-Blackness by Maureen H. O’Connell Alex Mikulich II In Undoing the Knots, Maureen O'Connell thoughtfully probes the entanglements of Roman Catholic Anti-Blackness. Yet in her efforts, she fails to address one of its enduring dimensions, namely: coloniality, the hidden, oppressive side of European modernity. Being a colonized and raced person is, by definition, “to be incapable of giving” explains Jane Anna Gordon in her celebration of W.E.B. Du Bois’s “Gift of Double-Consciousness.”1 The colonial epistemology that the Roman Catholic papacy initiated in the early fifteenth century inaugurated both the sinful idolatry of racial superiority and Eurocentric people’s refusal to celebrate the divine giftedness of Black, Brown, and Indigenous peoples. The interconnected economic, ecological, and racial crises of our time remain unabated, in part, because we white settler Americans consume a “happy story” about economic growthism in our socialization systems even as this so-called “free market” impoverishes billions of people and destroys the planet. We white American settlers conveniently forget that the economic rise of the West and the United States depended upon enslavement of African and American Indigenous peoples, expropriating both labor and capital, and dispossessing them of lands and abundant resources. This is the Colonial Matrix Power, aptly named by the sociologist Anibal Quijano, that perpetuates police and vigilante violence against Black people at rates nearly the same as that of lynching just a century ago. This so-called “modern” system colonizes Black, Latino/a, and Indigenous space and bodies through the school to prison pipeline, hyper-incarceration, and by fostering a political economy of segregation through a combination of racially structured banking, real estate, and [End Page 64] governmental policies that “hastens physical decline in urban neighborhoods [and] forever incentivizes their perpetuation.”2 Before any white theologian articulated racial mercy, W.E.B. Du Bois’s gift of double consciousness is only one example of many gifts African peoples offer to practice the porousness and mutuality O’Connell invites (168). Black, Brown, and Indigenous peoples offer love within the binds of oppression, like the gift of double consciousness, inviting white folks to perceive and lament our own complicity in anti-Blackness, and celebrate the divine giftedness, beauty, grandeur, and dignity of Black peoples. A sense of awe before the Creator and celebration of the giftedness of Black people fosters the humility to open ourselves in vulnerability and acknowledge our need for Black people in the intimate, interdependent web of relations of human and non-human kin. Then, perhaps, we might loosen knots of coloniality and begin to sew a new cloth of mutuality and togetherness. When and how will we white folks celebrate the divine giftedness of Black, Brown, and Indigenous peoples and engage the impasse of anti-Black coloniality? Alex Mikulich Independent Roman Catholic social ethicist Footnotes 1. Anna Jane Gordon, “The Gift of Double Consciousness: Some Obstacles to Grasping the Contributions of the Colonized,” in Postcolonialism and Political Theory, ed. Nalini Persram (Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2007), 143–163. 2. Keeanga-Yamahtta Taylor, Race for Profit: How Banks and the Real Estate Industry Undermined Black Home Ownership (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2019), 11. Copyright © 2022 American Catholic Historical Society

Karuk ecological fire management practices promote elk habitat in northern California

Abstract After a century of fire suppression and accumulating fuel loads in North American forests, prescribed burns are increasingly used to prevent conditions leading to catastrophic megafire. There is widespread evidence that prescribed fire was used by Indigenous communities to manage natural and cultural resources for thousands of years. Wildlife habitat is an example of an ecological response that was actively managed with prescribed burns by Indigenous American peoples and is an important factor in western US forest management planning, restoration and climate resilience efforts. We analysed the effects of modern prescribed burns informed by traditional ecological knowledge (TEK) on the predicted change in elk winter habitat in Karuk aboriginal territory in Northern California between 2013 and 2018 using species distribution and simultaneous autoregressive modelling techniques. Burn types most closely resembling Karuk traditional practices, specifically those incorporating multiple‐year broadcast burns, had significant positive effects on elk winter habitat suitability. Conversely, concentrated burns focused solely on reducing fuel loads had significant negative effects on elk winter habitat suitability. However, areas where these fuel‐reduction burns were combined with multiple years of broadcast burns featured the highest increases in habitat. Synthesis and applications. Our results suggest that transitioning to prescribed burns that more closely follow Karuk traditional ecological knowledge will promote elk habitat in the region. This would be best achieved through continuing to work closely with Indigenous representatives to plan and implement cultural fire prescriptions on a landscape scale, a trend we posit would benefit environmental management efforts across the globe.

The Big Picture versus Minutiae: Geophytes, Plant Foods, and Ancient Human Economies

In a rejoinder to Gill et alia (2021), Martin (2022) accuses us of perpetuating misconceptions about human nutrition and erroneously describing geophytes as a dietary staple. We provide authoritative definitions for the terms “essential” and “dietary staple” to show that it is Martin who mischaracterizes and misunderstands the foundational role of geophytes and other plant foods to human diets and subsistence economies in Native North America outside of the Arctic. Recent data demonstrate that carbohydrate-rich geophytes were abundant, regularly utilized, and essential resources on the Northern Channel Islands, a dietary staple that was a rich source of calories and complemented the protein-rich shellfish and finfish that were also staple foods for the Island Chumash.