Native Norms Research Articles

Multi-resolutive sparse approximations of d-dimensional data

This paper proposes an iterative computation of sparse representations of functions defined on Rd, which exploits a formulation of the sparsification problem equivalent to Support Vector Machine and based on Tikhonov regularization. Through this equivalent formulation, the sparsification reduces to an approximation problem with a Tikhonov regularizer, which selects the null coefficients of the resulting approximation. The proposed multi-resolutive sparsification achieves a different resolution in the approximation of the input data through a hierarchy of nested approximation spaces. The idea behind our approach is to combine a smooth and strictly convex approximation of the l1-norm with Tikhonov regularization and iterative solvers of linear/non-linear equations. Firstly, the iterative sparsification scheme is introduced in a Reproducing Kernel Hilbert Space with respect to its native norm. Then, the sparsification is generalized to arbitrary function spaces using the least-squares norm and radial basis functions. Finally, the discrete sparsification is derived using the eigendecomposition and the spectral properties of sparse matrices; in this case, the computational cost is O(nlogn), with n number of input points. Assuming that the data is supported on a (d−1)-dimensional manifold, we derive a variant of the sparsification scheme that guarantees the smoothness of the solution in the ambient and intrinsic space by using spectral graph theory and manifold learning techniques. Finally, we discuss the multi-resolutive approximation of d-dimensional data such as signals, images, and 3D shapes.

Formulaic Language and Second Language Acquisition: Zipf and the Phrasal Teddy Bear

This article revisits earlier proposals that language learning is, in essence, the learning of formulaic sequences and their interpretations; that this occurs at all levels of granularity from large to small; and that the language system emerges from the statistical abstraction of patterns latent within and across form and function in language usage. It considers recent research in individual differences, the psycholinguistics of language processing, and longitudinal studies of first (L1) and second (L2) language acquisition. The first section reviews studies of individual differences in phonological short-term memory (PSTM) and working memory (WM) and their correlations with vocabulary and grammar acquisition in L2. The second section summarizes evidence that language processing is sensitive to the statistical properties of formulaic language in terms of frequency and transitional probability. The third section examines the definition of formulas and formulaicity using different statistical metrics. The fourth section evaluates longitudinal research in L1 and L2 into the putative developmental sequence commonly proposed in usage-based approaches, from formula to low-scope pattern to creative construction. The final section weighs the implications of the statistical distributions of formulaicity in usage for developmental sequences of language acquisition. Zipf's law and the “phrasal teddy bear” explain the paradox whereby formulas seed language acquisition and yet learner language is formula-light in comparison to native norms.

Length of residence and intensity of interaction

This paper investigates the external and internal modification devices used by native speakers and advanced learners of Greek, when making requests in formal and informal situations. The data are drawn from a discourse completion test completed by native speakers and learners of two different groups: one with extended length of residence in Greece but limited opportunities for interaction with native speakers and one with more frequent opportunities for interaction but limited length of residence in the target community. On the basis of the results, it is argued that learners with more opportunities for interaction approximate more closely to the native norm with respect to external modification and some aspects of internal modification of requests. Yet, it is shown that other aspects of internal modification remain underdeveloped, irrespective of frequency of contact with native speakers. This highlights the need for pedagogical intervention in order for the learners’ pragmatic development to be promoted.

Culture Wars: Religions of the East

There are approximately 6.5 billion people occupying space on the earth today. (US Census, 2006) They speak approximately 6000 different languages; however, since the age of technology, some of these people have abandoned their native tongues and culture norms due to globalization and immigration to and from other countries. (Whole Earth, 2000) Some of these mixtures become like melting pots, however, due to culture clashes some become tossed salads with different culture conflicts. Being introduced to cultural diversity and the understanding of cultures usually help; however, uncompromising positions that bring strife keep the fuse burning, like Islam.

A Study of Relationships between L1 Pragmatic Transfer and L2 Proficiency

Studies in interlanguage pragmatics have shown that L2 learners’ proficiency has an influence on the occurrences of L1 pragmatic transfer. However, questions remain whether the relationship between L1 pragmatic transfer and L2 proficiency is positive or negative. This paper is designed to study L1 pragmatic transfer in requests made by Chinese learners of English at low L2 proficiency level and at high L2 proficiency level and how L1 pragmatic transfer is related to their L2 proficiency. Ten low proficiency learners of English, ten high proficiency learners of English?ten native speakers of English and ten native speakers of Chinese participate in this study. Requests are collected by means of a discourse completion test questionnaire and are analysed in terms of requestive semantic formulas based on the taxonomy of request strategies, internal modifiers and external modifiers. The research results reveal that L1 pragmatic transfer decreases with the increase of L2 proficiency such as learners’ use of direct strategies, lexical and phrasal downgraders, imperatives and grounder and no clear relationship is found between L1 pragmatic transfer and L2 proficiency in terms of the other request strategies, internal modifiers and external modifiers. These results provide partial support to negative correlation hypothesis —high proficiency L2 learners are less likely to transfer their native language pragmatic norms since they have enough control over L2.

Developmental status and home environment among children born to immigrant women married to Taiwanese men

The aims of this cross-sectional study were to examine (a) the developmental status and home environments of children (6-24 months) of immigrant women married to Taiwanese men, and (b) the association of child developmental status with parental socio-demographics, maternal language abilities, and home environment qualities. Participants were 61 children and their mothers from China and Vietnam. Data were collected with interviews, home observations, and developmental testing. The children had lower cognitive and language but higher motor and social development scores compared with native norms. Home environment and maternal perceived language ability were positively associated with child development. The association of home environment and maternal language ability with early childhood development was supported for immigrant populations in Taiwan.

English as a Lingua Franca in Flanders

This article reports on a study that examines the attitudes of 69 Flemish university students towards the emerging conceptualization of English as a lingua franca (ELF) on the basis of a questionnaire survey. Built on the notion of ELF as a functional term theorized on sociolinguistic grounds, this study seeks to understand the relation between ELF as a theoretical construct and ELF as a reality in the life of these language students through their experiences of engagement with English, both within and outside the academic community. The results show that the students have embraced some ideas of the ELF phenomenon on a macro level, but retain a strong belief in the native standard norm on a micro level.

From Grade School to University: The Variable Use ofon/nousby University FSL Students

This study examines factors correlated with the use of nous and on by university students formerly enrolled in French immersion programs. Their variant frequency and stylistic appropriateness are compared to those of (1) former core French university students; (2) French as a second language (FSL) speakers in a francophone environment; and (3) native speakers of French. The study also explores whether the former immersion students' use is closer to native norms than is that of high school immersion students and, if so, what factors trigger such a change from high school to university. The findings show that the former immersion students use on more frequently than do high school immersion and former core French learners. Furthermore, among the former immersion students, those with early exposure to and prolonged institutional contact with French and those who use French frequently tend to use on and nous in ways approaching use by FSL speakers in a francophone environment and native speakers of French.

Negotiating Europe's Lingua Franca

English has spread and is used around the world, often as a rational choice made by professional groups and bilingual speech communities. In Europe, it is used as a language of wider communication or a lingua franca. This study argues that although English can be the means of expression of local or national or European identities, and even though ‘Euro-English’ has some identifiable features, it is unlikely to develop into a distinct, stable, codifiable and teachable variety, wholly independent of native English norms.

Korean College Students’ Use of English Demonstratives in Argumentative Essays

The present study examines the Korean college students’ use of English demonstratives in argumentative essays through a comparison with that of native speakers. The results of the quantitative analysis indicate that overall learners underuse demonstratives compared to the native speakers. More specific quantitative differences include: the learners’ greater dependence on the distal (as opposed to proximal) demonstratives, underuse of this/those as a pronoun and of these as a determiner, and overuse of that as a pronoun, when compared with the native norm. The qualitative analysis reveals several interesting findings such as fewer instances of text reference and the limited type and variety of nouns and modifiers that co-occur with demonstratives in learner essays. These findings are discussed in terms of the rhetorical significance of demonstrative choice in persuasive argumentation, the transfer of spoken characteristics to a written register and the native language transfer. Despite the occasional better performance of the higher level learners than the lower level learners, the two groups are found to generally belong together. This suggests that the native-like use of the demonstratives is not automatically achieved with the increase of the general language proficiency. Some important pedagogical implications are drawn from these results.

Use of general extenders by German non-native speakers of English

Based on a corpus of ca. 18 ½ hours of dyadic interactions between near-strangers, this paper investigates the use of general extenders (GEs) by native speakers of New Zealand English (NSNZE) and German (NSG) in terms of their forms and frequencies. The results are compared with the use of GEs produced by German non-native speakers of English (GNNSE). GEs are a group of pragmatic devices such as and things like that, or something, which have been associated with expressing epistemic modality and interpersonal politeness. The results of the study suggest that, while NSG use GEs more frequently than NSNZE, GE construction in English is more flexible than in German. Furthermore, GNNSE seem to transfer some NSG forms to English, creating non-native-like structures. An increased awareness of the native norms in terms of construction and use of GEs might help non-native speakers facilitate communication in cross-cultural interactions and establish interpersonal rapport.

Augmented visual feedback in second language learning: Training Japanese post-alveolar flaps to American English speakers

Recent studies suggest beneficial effects of kinematic feedback in the articulatory training of individuals with speech disorders [Katz et al. (2002)]. To better understand the nature of speech motor learning in healthy individuals, the present study examines how adult monolingual speakers of American English learn to produce a non‐native consonant: The Japanese post‐alveolar flap. Eight participants were randomly assigned to one of two training groups: (1) Conventional L2 training, and (2) conventional L2 training with electromagnetic articulography (EMA)‐based kinematic feedback on tongue tip position. Participants completed three baseline recording sessions, eight training sessions, and two post‐training sessions (four weeks after training). During training, participants practiced a total of 16 disyllabic non‐words containing the post‐alveolar flap in word‐initial or word‐medial position. Participants practiced trained words 20× in blocked fashion, with summarized oral feedback given after every five repetitions. The data were analyzed in terms of flap consonant duration. Preliminary results indicate: (1) Before training, participants produced longer flap durations than native Japanese speakers; (2) with training, flap durations approximated native norms; and (3) kinematic feedback with EMA appears to facilitate the acquisition of novel speech sound production.

Compliment Behaviour in Bilingual Kuwaiti College Students

The analysis of compliment responses in a number of languages has attracted a growing research interest and information is already available on how native speakers of English and Arabic respond. This allows for the prediction of certain cross-linguistic pragmatic differences that might characterise compliment responses in the case of Arabic-speaking EFL students. Rather than engage in speculation on the matter, the present study investigates this empirically by examining English compliments paid by Kuwaiti undergraduates to their peers and the responses these elicited. The corpus comprised 632 compliment responses, almost two thirds of which were in English, the remainder being nonverbal, Arabic or bilingual. Analysis was carried out to establish frequencies of simple (a single illocution) and complex (two or more illocutions) responses, the types and frequencies of different illocutions, and the influence of native language norms of expression. Results showed the latter to be very strong, detracting from the authentic nature of English responses. Discussion explores the cultural and linguistic bases underlying such responses. It is pointed out that such an analysis provides useful information for cross-linguistic pragmatics and foreign language pedagogy.

An Investigation into the Influence of Chinese Undergraduates’ Developing View of World Englishes on Their Preference for a Native or Non-native Speaker Teacher of English

British and American English as the only acceptable forms of Standard English have been seriously challenged in the World Englishes literature. Meanwhile, with the emergence of English as an International Language (EIL), there has been a growing acceptance of different local varieties of English as Standard Englishes. Thus, some linguists in China have voiced the opinion that China English should stand alongside British, American English and other varieties of English. It follows that nonnative speaker teachers would be better able to teach this variety than native speaker teachers. In order to investigate Chinese students’ responses to these two claims, I conducted a research project with subjects from eight different universities in the People’s Republic of China. The data gathered from questionnaires, participants’ group discussions and interviews indicate that Chinese students show a positive attitude towards EIL and China English, and this in turn influences their preference for a Chinese teacher rather than a native speaker teacher of English.The paper is organized as follows: Section 1 looks at some recent discussions on World Englishes, China English and ELT in China. Then it presents the arguments for and against the native norms. Afterwards the attention shifts to the hot debate on native vs. non-native teachers of English. In the light of these theories, a research project was carried out in universities in China in order to explore learners’ reactions to World Englishes, and their evaluation of native and non-native teachers of English. The second section introduces the methodology of the research, followed by an analysis of the data collected from the study in the third section. Section 4, the conclusion section suggests the implications of the research and attempts to provide some possible suggestions in further research.

Voice onset time and foreign accent detection : are L2 learners better than monolinguals?

Using an audiovisual perception task, two groups of native English listeners (monolinguals, and L2 learners of Spanish) were asked to identify which /p,t,k/ tokens had been produced by native English speakers and which ones by foreigners. The experiment found that self-reported criteria for foreign accent detection tended to be consistent with actual perceptual behavior, and that the L2 learners performed better, both at the group and at the individual level. These results suggest that foreign accent detection is cued by Voice Onset Time differences and taps into both our tacit knowledge of the native segmental norm and our implicit awareness of what constitutes a particular deviation from that norm. Moreover, the results suggest that, contrary to what some have assumed, monolinguals are not necessarily more sensitive to foreign accents than second language learners.

Temporal patterns of native Mandarin Chinese speakers’ productions of English stop-vowel syllable

Second language (L2) production can be a kind of interlanguage, a relatively stable system bearing the nature of both the native language (L1) and L2. Within such a system sound components of a syllable may bear their own interlanguage characteristics and yet interact with the other component sounds. The present study investigates temporal patterns of L1–L2 interaction at the syllable level. Audio recordings were made of English stop-vowel syllables produced by native speakers of Mandarin who were fluent in English (ChE). Native English productions (AmE) of these syllables and native productions of Mandarin (ChM) stop-vowel syllables were acquired as native norms. Temporal measures included stop closure duration, voice-onset time (VOT), vowel duration, and syllable duration. Results show that the internal timing components of ChE often deviate from AmE, with the closure duration, VOT, and vowel duration being intermediate to AmE and ChM. However, at the syllable level, ChE productions tend to follow the overall patterns of AmE. Temporal deviations were often compensated by temporal compensation of other components in the syllable, maintaining a balanced consonant/vowel distribution. These findings have implications for a broader understanding of L2 productions.

Xhosa English as an institutionalised variety of English

This paper aims to examine the English of Xhosa speakers (a significant proportion of speakers of Black South African English, since Xhosa is the second largest indigenous black language in South Africa), in terms of Williams’ (1987) criteria for Non-native Institutionalised Varieties of English (NIVEs). Using a corpus-based approach, the article reports on the results of analyses of a range of linguistic features in the newly-developed corpus of spoken Xhosa English (over 500 000 words), in an effort to go some way towards providing the evidence so necessary for the endorsement of newly established norms, and to counteract the pull of native English norms, “which tend to result in the stigmatisation of some of the major indexical markers of the non-native varieties” (Bamgbose 1998:3).

SECOND LANGUAGE PROFICIENCY AND PAUSING A Study of Russian Speakers of English

The present study examines the relationship between second language (L2) proficiency and pausing patterns (i.e., pause duration, frequency, and distribution) in the speech of 30 Russian speakers of English performing two oral tasks—a topic narrative and a cartoon description—in Russian and in English. The subjects were divided into two oral English proficiency groups, high and intermediate, on the basis of a standardized test of spoken English. Baseline data were collected from a control group of 20 native English speakers. Statistical analyses were performed to determine: (a) the native norms of pause duration, frequency, and distribution for Russian and English on the two experimental tasks; (b) the effect of the level of L2 proficiency (high and intermediate) on the pausing of Russian speakers in English; and (c) the differences or similarities in pausing exhibited by native English speakers and native Russian speakers (with two different levels of English proficiency) when speaking English. The results of this study indicate that English and Russian informal monologue speech can be characterized as having different pausing conventions, thus suggesting that crosslinguistic differences involve, among many other aspects, contrasts in pausing patterns. Additionally, L2 proficiency was found to affect the pause duration of advanced nonnative speakers in that they were able to adjust the duration of their pauses in English to produce a nativelike pausing norm. It was also found that even highly proficient L2 speakers pause more frequently in their L2 than in their first language (L1). The examination of pause distribution patterns suggests that persons of intermediate to high L2 speaking proficiency make the same number of within-constituent pauses as native speakers. Overall, the findings of this study support the view that adherence to the target language pausing norms may lead to the perception of nonnative speech as more fluent and nativelike. The findings also highlight the importance of exposing L2 students to a richer variety of situations that illustrate native patterns of verbal communication.

Acoustic analysis of American listeners’ Mandarin tone productions before and after perceptual training

Training American listeners to perceive Mandarin tones has been shown to be effective, with the trainees’ identification improving by 21% [Y. Wang, A. Jongman, and J. Sereno, J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 106, 3649–3658 (1999)]. The effect on production as a result of perceptual training was first assessed by native Mandarin listeners’ evaluation of the trainees’ tone productions, showing that post-training productions were 18% more accurately identified than pre-training productions [Y. Wang, M. Spence, A. Jongman, and J. Sereno, J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 105, 1095 (1999)]. A detailed acoustic analysis has now been performed to further examine the nature of the production improvement. Trainees’ productions include 80 Mandarin words recorded both before and after perceptual training. For comparison, these words were also produced by native Mandarin speakers. For each production, a pitch track was derived. Results show that post-training tone contours approximate native norms to a greater degree than pre-training tone contours, indicating an improvement in production following perceptual training. Furthermore, pitch height and pitch contour are not mastered in parallel, with the former being more resistant to improvement than the latter. The results are discussed in terms of the production–perception relationship and native language influence.

Zero Anaphora in Nonnative Texts

This paper investigates the occurrence of null objects in a stable nonnative variety of English spoken in Nepal. Previous studies of zero anaphora with second language learners have assumed that advanced learners of English will acquire the native target norms, which highly constrain null object occurrences. This paper shows that in the construction of text speakers of Nepali English may omit both direct and indirect objects in contexts where native speakers may not. Pragmatic principles govern these occurrences although they differ for the two types of objects. Null direct objects are part of discourse topic chains and their referents are recoverable within the text, even across speakers. Null indirect objects, on the other hand, refer primarily to discourse participants and do not generally need textual coreferents. The resultant discourse organization for this variety of English is one that requires greater addressee participation than native English discourse. The paper shows that when learners are confronted with input from two typologically distinct discourse traditions they may develop a third framework that utilizes compatible features for each.