Native Language Research Articles

From Singing “Out-of-Tone” to Creating Contextualized Cantonese Contemporary Worship Songs: Hong Kong in the Decentralization of Chinese Christianity

For over a century, Hong Kong Christians have sung Chinese hymns in an “out-of-tone” manner. Lyrics in traditional hymnals were translated or written to be sung in Mandarin, the national language, but most locals speak Cantonese, another Sinitic and tonal language. Singing goes “out-of-tone” when Mandarin hymns are sung in Cantonese, which often causes meaning distortions. Why did Hong Kong Christians accept this practice? How did they move from singing “out-of-tone” to creating contextualized Cantonese contemporary worship songs? What does this process reveal about the evolution of Chinese Christianity? From a Hong Kong-centered perspective, this article reconstructs the city’s hymnological development. I consider the creation of national Mandarin hymnals during Republican China as producing a nationalistic Mainland-centric and Mandarin-centric Chinese Christianity. Being on the periphery, Hong Kong Christians did not have the resources to develop their own hymns and thus continued to worship “out-of-tone”. With the decline of the old Chinese Christian center of Shanghai, the growth of Cantonese culture and Hongkonger identity, and the influence of Western pop and Christian music, local Christians began to create Cantonese contemporary worship songs. This hymnological contextualization reflects and contributes to not only the decolonization but, more importantly, the decentralization of Chinese Christianity.

The politics of distraction in planning English-medium education policy in schools

ABSTRACT This article presents the findings of a critical ethnography focused on the English-medium instruction (EMI) policy in Nepal’s public schools. Through the analysis of policy documents and interviews with policymakers, the study reveals that policymakers view the EMI policy as a solution to the crisis in public schools by enhancing their competitiveness with private English-medium schools. However, this approach is identified as a ‘politics of distraction’, as it diverts attention from broader issues such as implicit privatization, funding cuts, and accountability deficits for implementing multilingual education policy. By framing EMI as a public policy doctrine using discursive strategies (e.g. neoliberal rationalization and justification) and suggesting that the crisis can be resolved through school privatization, which in turn promotes commodified languages like English and the national dominant language, Nepali, over local/Indigenous languages, policymakers largely disregard inequalities, structural conditions, and reinforce the existing unequal power relations. By diverting attention from critical issues, policymakers perpetuate historical marginalization, colonial agendas and ideologies, and unequal power asymmetries, failing to address systemic challenges. The research underscores the necessity of scrutinizing the motivations and agendas underlying the promotion of EMI in mainstream schools in multilingual contexts.

A Day in the Cornfields: A Western Otomi Narrative

This paper focuses on Western Otomi, a Mexican native language spoken in the municipality of Temoaya in the State of Mexico (ISO 639-3 ott). Speakers recognize themselves as dri ñatho, which means ‘I still speak’ and differentiate themselves from people who only speak Spanish, even though they belong to the same community, as i ñamfo ‘they speak Spanish’. This variety is underdocumented, mainly transmitted by oral tradition and spoken at home or with friends and neighbors. Hence, receptive speakers are common. Through this narrative from a Western Otomi speaker, we are offered a glimpse into what a day in the cornfields is like. In addition, this narrative gives us general insight into some features of the language. So, after introducing the cultural context of it, I present the narrative.

The mechanism of phonetic information in voice identity discrimination: a comparative study based on sighted and blind people

PurposeThe purpose of this study is to examine whether phonetic information functions and how phonetic information affects voice identity processing in blind people.MethodTo address the first inquiry, 25 normal sighted participants and 30 blind participants discriminated voice identity, when listening forward speech and backward speech from their own native language and another unfamiliar language. To address the second inquiry, combining articulatory suppression paradigm, 26 normal sighted participants and 26 blind participants discriminated voice identity, when listening forward speech from their own native language and another unfamiliar language.ResultsIn Experiment 1, not only in the voice identity discrimination task with forward speech, but also in the discrimination task with backward speech, both the sighted and blind groups showed the superiority of the native language. This finding supports the view that backward speech still retains some phonetic information, and indicates that phonetic information can affect voice identity processing in sighted and blind people. In addition, only the superiority of the native language of sighted people was regulated by the speech manner, which is related to articulatory rehearsal. In Experiment 2, only the superiority of the native language of sighted people was regulated by articulatory suppression. This indicates that phonetic information may act in different ways on voice identity processing in sighted and blind people.ConclusionThe heightened dependence on voice source information in blind people appears not to undermine the function of phonetic information, but it appears to change the functional mechanism of phonetic information. These findings suggest that the present phonetic familiarity model needs to be improved with respect to the mechanism of phonetic information.

Kajian Eksistensi terhadap Bahasa Indonesia sebagai Bahasa Persatuan dan Bahasa Negara di Era Globalisasi

Language is a need for everyone. Language is also an element of culture and a symbol for a person to communicate all needs. For the Indonesian people, Indonesian has a very important position because Indonesian is the national language and state language. Indonesian as the national language as a nation was built on the basis of ethnic and cultural diversity, Indonesia has good capital in fostering a sense of nationalism and strengthening national identity through the use of Indonesian. The existence of the Indonesian language, which is the identity of the Indonesian nation in the current era of globalization, needs to be fostered and socialized by every Indonesian citizen. This is necessary so that the Indonesian people are not carried away by foreign influences and culture that are not in accordance with the language and culture of the Indonesian people. The influence of such sophisticated communication tools must be faced by maintaining the identity of the Indonesian nation, including the identity of the Indonesian language. This all concerns the discipline of speaking the national language, by complying with all the rules or regulations for using the Indonesian language. Globalization affects all aspects of life, including language. The increasingly global language used by all nations in the world is English, which has more than one billion users.

Seroprevalence of Treponema pallidum infection in Brazilian indigenous people: a cross-sectional study

Indigenous communities in Brazil have a complex epidemiological profile, which increases their chances of contracting sexually transmitted diseases. However, limited data is available on Treponema pallidum infections in this population. We investigated the seroprevalence and risk factors associated with T. pallidum infection in an indigenous population of Dourados, Mato Grosso do Sul. Blood samples were collected from September 2017 to March 2020, and the participants were interviewed to obtain comprehensive data on demography and sexual behavior. Serological tests were performed to detect T. pallidum infection. Besides conducting descriptive analysis, we performed Chi-squared tests and determined the bivariate odds ratio. The data were also analyzed using logistic regression. Among the 2190 invited individuals, 1927 (88%) were included in this study. The seroprevalence of T. pallidum infection was 2.91%. The results of a multivariate analysis showed that individuals who were 30–39 years old, with up to 4 years of school education, living in households without piped water, with a history of genital lesions, multiple sexual partners, and having a history of STIs had the highest seroprevalence of T. pallidum. This study showed that behavioral, social, and economic factors play an important role in the transmission of T. pallidum within the indigenous population. Thus, targeted intervention, including imparting education in the native language, mass testing initiatives, and implementing public policies to improve socioeconomic indicators, is needed to reduce the cases of syphilis in this community.

Understanding the impact of foreign language on social norms through lies

Abstract This study investigates how a foreign language impacts social norms. We tested this by comparing the magnitude of response differences between norm-violating and norm-adhering behaviors in native language versus foreign language. In experiment 1, participants indicated the acceptability of third-person black and white lies in either their native or foreign language on a Likert scale. In experiment 2, participants indicated their first-person intentions to tell black and white lies on a Likert scale. Experiment 3 conceptually replicated experiment 1 on a slider scale, testing white lies and blunt truths. In experiment 4, participants provided dichotomous yes–no decisions to tell black and white lies. Results revealed a significant reduction of acceptability ratings in experiments 1 and 3 while only showing such a trend in experiments 2 and 4, suggesting language impacts particularly descriptive social norms. Collectively, these findings provide insight into how a foreign language diminishes the influence of social norms.

Readability Analysis of Spanish-Language Patient-Reported Outcome Measures in Orthopaedic Surgery.

Patient-reported outcome measures (PROMs) are increasingly used to quantify patient symptomatology when assessing intervention effectiveness as well as to guide patient-centered health-care management and research. Previous studies have analyzed the readability of PROMs used in orthopaedics in the English language; however, the readability of PROMs used in orthopaedics in the Spanish language has not been evaluated. Given the increasing number of Spanish-speaking individuals seeking orthopaedic care in the United States, it is imperative that PROMs are at an adequate reading level for patients to answer appropriately in their native language. This study aimed to assess the readability of publicly available Spanish-language PROMs used in orthopaedics. Searches of the PubMed, Google Scholar, and Embase databases were conducted to identify publicly available Spanish-language versions of PROMs used in orthopaedics. Additionally, the PROMIS Health Organization was contacted to obtain Spanish-language versions of the PROMIS (Patient-Reported Outcomes Measurement Information System) questionnaires. A total of 42 Spanish-language PROMs were identified and included in this study. The text of each PROM was inserted into multilingual readability software (legible.es), which analyzed the readability of each PROM using the Fernández Huerta and Índice de Legibilidad de Flesch-Szigriszt (INFLESZ) readability formulas. The mean and standard deviation (SD) of the raw readability scores were calculated for the PROMs. The percentage of PROMs at or below the 6th-grade reading level was also calculated. The mean readability of PROMs using the INFLESZ formula was at a 7th to 10th-grade reading level (mean = 63, SD = 16), and the mean readability using the Fernández Huerta formula was 68 (SD = 15). On average, 57% of the PROMs used in orthopaedics were at or below the INFLESZ 6th-grade readability level. Approximately half of Spanish-language PROMs used in orthopaedics are written at a reading level that does not meet the National Institutes of Health and the American Medical Association recommendations at or below the 6th-grade level. PROM developers and translators should consider the importance of readability when translating PROMs, to maximize their use and efficacy among orthopaedic patients speaking that language.

Analyzing Translated Research Methods Books in Social And Educational Sciences from English to Turkish: Exploring the Reasons for Translation Through Even-Zohar’s Poly-System Theory

In the last century, a paradigm shift in the scientific field has transformed our perspective on issues and events, our ability to discern cause-and-effect relationships, and our approach to them. This shift has led to radical changes in the scientific field and has accelerated the development of social and educational sciences, enabling such methods to become more prevalent than quantitative ones in the social and educational sciences. As a result, qualitative and mixed method approaches have increasingly replaced quantitative methods, giving rise to various new fields within the social sciences and providing diverse research opportunities. This evolution in research methods has also led to the proliferation of books on research methodologies in these fields. To reach a global audience, these books are predominantly written in English as the Lingua Franca and later translated into national languages if needed, or they are initially written in the native languages of the authors. The choice of translated books can be influenced by the preferences of researchers or translators, gaps in the national literature, the juvenile and unsettled nature of the national literature experiencing significant changes, or their unfamiliarity with current literary innovations. This article examines the justifications provided by translators and translation editors for translating books on research methods in social and educational sciences from English into Turkish within the framework of themes regarding the formation of poly-system theory, as coined by Itamar Even-Zohar as a functionalist pioneer in translation studies, newly emerging in social sciences in the last century. The content analysis, a qualitative research design for document analysis, was utilized in the research through using criterion sampling and maximum diversity, by selecting the prefaces of the translated versions of 20 research methods books by different authors and publishing houses between 2013 and 2022 and exclusively focusing on social sciences and educational sciences. Examining translators’ and editor’s statements deductively through the themes from the poly-system theory, we concluded that there are gaps and turning points in this field both in the national literature and in the world literature, that the relevant literature is not yet settled and trying to become primary and canonized via translated books, resulting in an increasing interest in the field.

One-day listen-and-repeat training of a non-native vowel duration contrast for speakers of Namibian languages

Abstract Listen-and-repeat training has previously been successfully used to train the perception and production of non-native vowel quality and duration contrasts. This study used a one-day listen-and-repeat training paradigm for the production of a non-native vowel duration contrast, /tite – tiːte/ with no feedback or other instructions. Learning results were assessed by acoustic analysis of the produced durations, and identification of the productions by listeners with quantity contrasts in their native Finnish language. Training participants were 18 Namibian speakers of various Bantu and Khoe languages. The results showed that the majority of the speakers did not produce a consistent acoustic duration contrast between the target words. In the identification task, the listeners’ performance was at essentially chance level for almost all of the speakers. The results are discussed in terms of earlier results using the same stimuli, training design and language background.

#69 Validation of the Visayan Translation of the End Stage Renal Disease—Adherence Questionnaire (VESRD-AQ)

Abstract Background and aims End-stage renal disease (ESRD) is one of the chronic diseases that rely heavily on patient's adherence to treatment. Measuring the factors related to adherence have been done but are difficult to compare due to non-uniformity of the tools used. The 46-item End-Stage Renal Disease—Adherence Questionnaire (ESRD-AQ) by Kim, et.al (2010) is a validated tool used to measure treatment adherence to the whole of ESRD management: hemodialysis, medications, fluid restrictions, and diet prescription. About 2000 ESRD patients have been registered in the Central Visayas, Philippines in 2022. The availability of a standardized and validated tool in the Visayan native language will help in assessing adherence and its related factors which can lead to interventions that could improve outcomes in ESRD patients. This study was done to translate the End-stage renal disease (ESRD-AQ) into the Visayan dialect (Visayan ESRD-AQ) and test its validity. Method The ESRD-AQ underwent forward translation into a Visayan version. This translation was evaluated for content validity using the Content Validity Index (CVI) rated by 5 experts, and face validity with a group of 5 ESRD patients. Blind backward translation was done and compared to the original ESRD-AQ. Construct validity was tested via a Known-Group Analysis. Test-retest reliability was done using the Intraclass Correlation Coefficient (ICC) to establish the questionnaire's stability overtime. Results The Visayan ESRD-AQ had adequate Content Validity Index of 1.0 which shows that each item on the questionnaire was relevant to its aim. Construct validity showed that the known adherers had higher scores than the known non-adherers. This means that the questionnaire was able to differentiate between the two groups. The responses of two patients were evaluated through the Intraclass Correlation Coefficient (ICC) and had the scores of 0.52 and 0.69, meaning that the questionnaire can be reliably used over time. Conclusion The Visayan ESRD-AQ is a valid and reliable tool for measuring adherence behaviors in a sample of Visayan-speaking dialysis patients as supported by the results of the Content Validity Index and known-group analysis. The can also be used reliably over time as it showed moderate test- retest reliability score. The validated VESRD-AQ may be valuable to researchers in studies of advanced chronic kidney disease. It could be used for studying adherence behaviors of ESRD patients across the Visayan region of the Philippines and the factors that contribute to adherence or non-adherence. Results of these studies can be used to improve services in dialysis units and can even be a tool in policy making with regards to hemodialysis in the Philippines. Further translations into other dialects or languages can also be done to be able to reach a broader population.

Exposure to bilingual or monolingual maternal speech during pregnancy affects the neurophysiological encoding of speech sounds in neonates differently.

Exposure to maternal speech during the prenatal period shapes speech perception and linguistic preferences, allowing neonates to recognize stories heard frequently in utero and demonstrating an enhanced preference for their mother's voice and native language. Yet, with a high prevalence of bilingualism worldwide, it remains an open question whether monolingual or bilingual maternal speech during pregnancy influence differently the fetus' neural mechanisms underlying speech sound encoding. In the present study, the frequency-following response (FFR), an auditory evoked potential that reflects the complex spectrotemporal dynamics of speech sounds, was recorded to a two-vowel /oa/ stimulus in a sample of 129 healthy term neonates within 1 to 3 days after birth. Newborns were divided into two groups according to maternal language usage during the last trimester of gestation (monolingual; bilingual). Spectral amplitudes and spectral signal-to-noise ratios (SNR) at the stimulus fundamental (F0) and first formant (F1) frequencies of each vowel were, respectively, taken as measures of pitch and formant structure neural encoding. Our results reveal that while spectral amplitudes at F0 did not differ between groups, neonates from bilingual mothers exhibited a lower spectral SNR. Additionally, monolingually exposed neonates exhibited a higher spectral amplitude and SNR at F1 frequencies. We interpret our results under the consideration that bilingual maternal speech, as compared to monolingual, is characterized by a greater complexity in the speech sound signal, rendering newborns from bilingual mothers more sensitive to a wider range of speech frequencies without generating a particularly strong response at any of them. Our results contribute to an expanding body of research indicating the influence of prenatal experiences on language acquisition and underscore the necessity of including prenatal language exposure in developmental studies on language acquisition, a variable often overlooked yet capable of influencing research outcomes.

Revisiting perceptual sensitivity to non-native speech in a diverse sample of bilinguals

Werker and Tees (1984) prompted decades of research attempting to detail the paths infants take towards specialisation for the sounds of their native language(s). Most of this research has examined the trajectories of monolingual children. However, it has also been proposed that bilinguals, who are exposed to greater phonetic variability than monolinguals and must learn the rules of two languages, may remain perceptually open to non-native language sounds later into life than monolinguals. Using a visual habituation paradigm, the current study tests this question by comparing 15- to 18-month-old monolingual and bilingual children’s developmental trajectories for non-native phonetic consonant contrast discrimination. A novel approach to the integration of stimulus presentation software with eye-tracking software was validated for objective measurement of infant looking time. The results did not support the hypothesis of a protracted period of sensitivity to non-native phonetic contrasts in bilingual compared to monolingual infants. Implications for diversification of perceptual narrowing research and implementation of increasingly sensitive measures are discussed.

Language and literature in the information economy: the state of English, English and the state

The impact of colonialism and empire and then of transport, logistics, advertising, media, cinema, radio, tourism, and the internet extended the global reach of English. With 1.13 billion speakers, one in seven in the world now has some English competence. Within this global circulation of English, we have the global teaching of English language and literature, most recently captured for Britain in a June 2023 British Academy report, the relevant findings of which are the decline in the information age and under neoliberal governments of university students reading English Literature and the rise of Creative Writing and world literatures in translation. I distinguish global from world Englishes as the hegemonic language of global trade and finance from more bottom-up Englishes mixed with other languages on the streets; discuss the state of English studies globally; and propose decolonising and denationalising the curriculum. The notion of national languages, identifying a language with national unity, is a very modern idea, only about three centuries old and arising with the formation of modern nation-states. We might use the lived histories of global and world Englishes to transcend both romantic revolutionary and far-right exclusionary nationalisms in literary and language studies in favour of more cosmopolitan, multilingual, and convivial approaches.

Zoom out: An intervention on the virtual learning environment improves minority students’ grades in two field experiments in Israel

Closing the achievement gap for minority students in higher education requires addressing the lack of belonging these students experience. This paper introduces a psychological intervention that strategically targets key elements within the learning environment to foster the success of minority students. The intervention sought to enhance Palestinian minority student's sense of belonging by increasing the presence of their native language. We tested the effectiveness of the intervention in two field experiments in Israel (n > 20,000), at the height of the COVID-19 pandemic when all classes were held via Zoom. Lecturers in the experimental condition added a transcript of their names in Arabic to their default display (English/Hebrew only). Our findings revealed a substantial and positive impact on Palestinian student's sense of belonging, class participation, and overall grades. In experiment 1, Palestinian student's average grade increased by 10 points. In experiment 2, there was an average increase of 4 points among Palestinian students' semester grade. Our intervention demonstrates that small institutional changes when carefully crafted can have a significant impact on minority populations. These results have significant implications for addressing educational disparities and fostering inclusive learning environment.

Studying the Impact Of D.P.SL Model on Online Identity Management

This paper investigates online identities through social media language use, with a focus on classifying online identity within textual conversations. It sheds light on how Demographic (D) groups and Personality (P) impact the use of Social-Media Language (SL) for identity representation online. This study was conducted in 2023 when there were 4.76 billion social media users worldwide, making it essential to study how social media language is used in textual conversations to convey online identity. The study defines social media language as consisting of emoticons/emojis, abbreviations, and mixed language within textual conversations, which have become essential for expressing feelings and emotions during conversations. The D.P.SL based survey conducted for this work aimed to understand how demographic groups and personality are related to social media language. Based on the total number of social media user worldwide, 400 responses (required based on Cochran and Yamane’s formulae sample-size calculation) and the survey was distributed across various verified online survey exchange platforms. However, 406 responses were recorded with young people in age groups of 18-24 and 25-34 using social media language more as it has become a part of their social media habits. The study also found that emoticons/emojis and slang abbreviations with letter reduplication were quite common, making conversations lively and funny. Additionally, individuals whose primary language is not English use their native language but type in English for quick communication. Subsequent study is to be conducted using online mock group conversations between participating respondents to further understand correlations, causation, and concurrency on how ‘online identity’ is managed during online communications via social media language, its context of use, and polarity sentiment.

Cultural adaptation and Sepedi translation of the Activities-specific Balance Confidence scale.

The Activities-specific Balance Confidence (ABC) scale is a widely used measure to identify older adults with balance difficulties. However, its applicability in the diverse South African context is hindered by cross-cultural and linguistic differences. Limited research exists on the use of the ABC scale in native South African languages. This study aimed to translate and culturally adapt the ABC scale into Sepedi, evaluate its reliability and determine self-perceived balance confidence among elderly individuals in a rural community. The ABC scale was translated and culturally adapted into Sepedi. Two trained raters administered the Sepedi version of the ABC (ABC-S) scale to 32 individuals aged between 60 and 88 years. Test-retest reliability and inter-rater reliability were determined, with one rater re-administering the scale 2 weeks later. Ten items from the original ABC scale were modified because of cultural, semantic or contextual inappropriateness. The ABC-S scale demonstrated very good intra- and inter-rater reproducibility, with an average intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) of 0.85 and 0.81, respectively. The self-perceived balance confidence among elderly Sepedi individuals, as evaluated by the ABC-S scale, was high, with an average score of 81.3 and a range of 58.1 to 95.9. The ABC-S scale is a reliable measurement tool to investigate balance confidence in Sepedi-speaking older adults.Contribution:The ABC-S scale is a valuable screening tool for the identification of balance difficulties in Sepedi-speaking older adults as well as research settings.

Academic dossier as a didactic strategy for critical reading in pedagogy students of national and foreign languages at the ULEAM Chone Extension

Academic processes change through technological advances and play an important role in students at higher institutes, this is the focus of the proposal of the academic dossier as a didactic strategy to promote critical reading in pedagogy students of national languages and foreigners, from the ULEAM Chone Extension. The academic dossier is used as an alternative to archive information downloaded from the web and convert it into the innovation manual to motivate reading and individual learning that is taken as an example to follow for those who have collective synergy, therefore the objective is to determine the importance of the academic dossier as a didactic strategy for critical reading in pedagogy students of national and foreign languages of the ULEAM Chone Extension. The work is descriptive and adjusts to the dependent and independent variables. The methodology was quantitative in approach since the survey was applied to teachers and students of the program and a bibliographic and descriptive review was carried out to support the theoretical bases of the two variables proposed.

Examining the Linguistic Identity of Asia’s Latin City: A Content Analysis of Multilingualism of a Nonmetropolitan Cityscape

This investigation offers an extensive analysis and examination of the linguistic landscape of a nonmetropolitan cityscape, focusing on the linguistic identity and multiple languages used throughout the city. This study fundamentally analyzes the multilingual nature and characteristics of the central district of Zamboanga City. Furthermore, the investigation incorporated analytical categories, adapted from previous studies, which constituted the systematic foundation for gathering and selecting essential data from multiple sources throughout the city proper. The investigation revealed significant results and indicated that the cityscape contains six (6) languages that comprise its linguistic identity, specifically, English (51.25%), Filipino (23.36%), Chavacano (19.59%), Tausug (2.99%), Chinese (1.74%) and Bisaya (1.07%). To ensure the accuracy of the collected data, the photographs were analyzed through content analysis to examine the linguistic signage of the nonmetropolitan cityscape. Moreover, the study revealed that the cityscape employs monolingual (80.79%), bilingual (18.82%), and multilingual (0.39%) signages, highlighting the city’s commitment to providing universally accessible information and preserving cultural/linguistic heritage. The investigation also revealed that English is the dominant language found within the signage, proving its significance in promoting global development, internationalization and economic growth in the city. However, despite its prominence, both local (Chavacano) and national (Filipino) languages are also evident in the cityscape, which underscores the city’s mission to preserve its cultural and linguistic identity, indicating that the languages are linguistically represented. In addition, the cityscape employs both official and nonofficial signage, which underscores its importance in information dissemination and advertising local services and products to international clients.

Early audiovisual language discrimination: Monolingual and bilingual infants’ differences in language switch detection

Successful language learning in bilinguals requires the differentiation of two language systems. The capacity to discriminate rhythmically close languages has been reported in 4-month-olds using auditory-only stimuli. This research offers a novel perspective on early language discrimination using audiovisual material. Monolingual and bilingual infants were first habituated to a face talking in the participants’ native language (or the more frequent language in bilingual contexts) and then tested on two successive language switches by the same speaker, with a close and a distant language. Code-switching exposure was indexed from parental questionnaires. Results revealed that while monolinguals could detect both the close- and distant-language switch, bilinguals only reacted to the distant language, regardless of home code-switching experience. In the temporal dimension, the analyses showed that language switch detection required at least 10 s, suggesting that the audiovisual presentation (here the same speaker switching languages) slowed down or even hindered the language switch detection. These results suggest that the detection of a multimodal close-language switch is a challenging task, especially for bilingual infants exposed to phonologically and rhythmically close languages. The current research sets the ground for further studies exploring the role of indexical cues and selective attention processes on language switch detection.