Native Girls Research Articles

Immigrant peers in the class: Effects on natives’ long-run revealed preferences

Previous research from the U.S. has suggested that black-white interaction in school can reduce prejudice and increase the prevalence of interracial relationships. We test whether this result holds also for natives and immigrants in Europe – groups whose interaction is plausibly more constrained by religious and cultural differences. Specifically, we study whether exposure to immigrant origin peers in school affects natives’ probability to have a child with a partner with non-Western background. Identification is based on variation in immigrant exposure across cohorts within schools in Sweden. We find that natives are affected by exposure to opposite-sex peers: native girls (boys) are more likely to have a child with a partner with non-Western background when exposed to immigrant origin boys (girls). In contrast to previous studies, we find no effects from same-sex peer exposure.

An Artificial Approach for the Fractional Order Rape and Its Control Model

The current investigations provide the solutions of the nonlinear fractional order mathematical rape and its control model using the strength of artificial neural networks (ANNs) along with the Levenberg-Marquardt backpropagation approach (LMBA), i.e., artificial neural networks-Levenberg-Marquardt backpropagation approach (ANNs-LMBA). The fractional order investigations have been presented to find more realistic results of the mathematical form of the rape and its control model. The differential mathematical form of the nonlinear fractional order mathematical rape and its control model has six classes: susceptible native girls, infected immature girls, susceptible knowledgeable girls, infected knowledgeable girls, susceptible rapist population and infective rapist population. The rape and its control differential system using three different fractional order values is authenticated to perform the correctness of ANNs-LMBA. The data is used to present the rape and its control differential system is designated as 70% for training, 14% for authorization and 16% for testing. The obtained performances of the ANNs-LMBA are compared with the dataset of the Adams-Bashforth-Moulton scheme. To substantiate the consistency, aptitude, validity, exactness, and capability of the LMBA neural networks, the obtained numerical values are provided using the state transitions (STs), correlation, regression, mean square error (MSE) and error histograms (EHs).

Din\xe9 (Navajo) female perspectives on mother\u2013daughter communication and cultural assets around the transition to womanhood: a cross-sectional survey

BackgroundThe inclusion of protective factors (“assets”) are increasingly supported in developing culturally grounded interventions for American Indian (AI) populations. This study sought to explore AI women’s cultural assets, perspectives, and teachings to inform the development of a culturally grounded, intergenerational intervention to prevent substance abuse and teenage pregnancy among AI females.MethodsAdult self-identified AI women (N = 201) who reside on the Navajo Nation completed a cross-sectional survey between May and October 2018. The 21-question survey explored health communication around the transition to womanhood, cultural assets, perceptions of mother–daughter reproductive health communication, and intervention health topics. Univariate descriptive analyses, chi squared, and fisher’s exact tests were conducted.ResultsRespondents ranged in age from 18 to 82 years, with a mean age of 44 ± 15.5 years. Women self-identified as mothers (95; 48%), aunts (59; 30%), older sisters (55; 28%), grandmothers (37; 19%), and/or all of the aforementioned (50; 25%). 66% (N = 95) of women admired their mother/grandmother most during puberty; 29% (N = 58) of women were 10–11 years old when someone first spoke to them about menarche; and 86% (N=172) felt their culture was a source of strength. 70% (N = 139) would have liked to learn more about reproductive health when they were a teenager; 67% (N = 134) felt Diné mothers are able to provide reproductive health education; 51% (N = 101) reported having a rite of passage event, with younger women desiring an event significantly more than older women. Responses also indicate a disruption of cultural practices due to government assimilation policies, as well as the support of male relatives during puberty.ConclusionsResults informed intervention content and delivery, including target age group, expanded caregiver eligibility criteria, lesson delivery structure and format, and protective cultural teachings. Other implications include the development of a complementary fatherhood and/or family-based intervention to prevent Native girls’ substance use and teen pregnancy.

Assimilation, Removal, Discipline, and Confinement

A full understanding of the roots of child separation must begin with Native children. This Article demonstrates how modern child welfare, delinquency, and education systems are rooted in the social control of indigenous children. It examines the experiences of Native girls in federal and state systems from the late 1800s to the mid1900s to show that, despite their ostensibly benevolent and separate purposes, these institutions were indistinguishable and interchangeable. They were simply differently styled mechanisms of forced assimilation, removal, discipline, and confinement. As the repeating nature of government intervention into the lives of Native children makes clear, renaming a system does not change its effect. The historical roots of these systems must be acknowledged, and the current systems must be abolished and replaced. To answer the question of what a nonpunitive, non-assimilative system would look like, this Article looks to tribal courts and indigenous justice systems. It points to specific examples of how Native communities have reshaped ideas about caring for and disciplining children, including traditional adoption, kinship care, wellness courts, family group conferencing, and a “best interests” standard that emphasizes the link between individual and collective well-being.

Rigorous evaluation of a substance use and teen pregnancy prevention program for American Indian girls and their female caregivers: a study protocol for a randomized controlled trial

BackgroundEarly sexual initiation is associated with higher risk for sexually transmitted infection, teen pregnancy, domestic violence and substance use in later adolescence and early adulthood. Native American adolescents are more likely to have early sexual initiation compared to other racial/ethnic groups. Few programs designed with and for Native adolescents to delay sexual initiation and substance use have been tested through rigorous evaluations. This is the protocol for the randomized controlled trial of the Asdzáán Be’eena’ program, a teen pregnancy and substance use prevention program for young Native girls and their female caregivers.MethodsN = 410 female adolescents ages 10–14 and their female caregivers will be enrolled in the study and randomized to the intervention or control arm. The intervention consists of the 11-session Asdzáán Be’eena’ program. The control arm consists of mailed non-monetary incentives. All participants will complete evaluations at baseline and 3 follow-up timepoints (immediate, 6 and 12 months post intervention). Evaluations include measures to assess protective factors associated with delayed sexual initiation and substance use.DiscussionThis is one of the first rigorous evaluations of a gender-specific, culturally tailored teen pregnancy and substance use primary prevention program for Native girls and their female caregivers. If proven efficacious, Native communities will have a culturally appropriate program for promoting protective factors associated with delayed substance use and sexual risk taking.Trial registrationNCT04863729; April 27, 2021.

Stopping Gestational Diabetes in American Indian and Alaska Native Girls: Nutrition as a Key Component to Gestational Diabetes Risk Reduction

ABSTRACTBackgroundAmerican Indian and Alaska Native (AI/AN) women have a higher risk of gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) and subsequent diagnosis of diabetes than do non-Hispanic White women. Healthy eating is key to weight management both prior to pregnancy and between pregnancies and can reduce the risk of developing GDM. Our research team developed an innovative preconception counseling and diabetes risk-reduction program, which includes nutrition and weight-management principles and is culturally tailored for adolescent AI/AN women. The program is entitled Stopping Gestational Diabetes Mellitus (SGDM).ObjectiveThe purpose of this article is to examine nutrition-related information collected as a part of the formative qualitative research conducted for the development of a preconception counseling and gestational diabetes risk-reduction program, SGDM.MethodsThis in-depth secondary analysis explored the original qualitative data from the needs assessment for SGDM program development. Participants included AI/AN women with a history of GDM (n = 5); AI/AN girls at risk of GDM (n = 14), and their mothers (n = 11), health care providers, and health administrators who care for AI/AN girls (n = 16); AI/AN elected leaders; and Indian health system administrators (n = 12). All focus groups and interviews were reanalyzed utilizing the following research question: “How do key stakeholders discuss food and/or nutrition in terms of gestational diabetes risk reduction for AI/AN adolescent girls?”ResultsThree primary nutrition themes emerged: 1) AI/AN women were aware of healthy nutrition, healthy weight gainduring pregnancy, and healthy nutrition for people with type 2 diabetes, but these principles were not linked to reducing the risk of GDM; 2) participants expressed the need for education on the role of nutrition and weight management in GDM risk reduction; 3) participants shared challenges of healthful eating during and before pregnancy for AI/AN women.ConclusionsThese stakeholders’ comments informed the development of the nutrition components of SGDM.

Environmental stimulation on height: The story from Indonesia

Background: Since the 19th century, sexual dimorphism has been known to be sensitive to adverse environmental conditions. Migrants are sensitive to economic and political affluence, and tend to adjust in height towards height of their hosts. We aim to study growth, sexual dimorphism, and height of native and migrant children in three primary schools in Nabire, Papua, Indonesia. Material and Methods 1: Cross-sectional data on height were obtained from 186 children (59 and 56 native Papuan girls and boys, respectively; 38 and 33 trans-migrant girls and boys respectively; who are aged 7.0-7.7 (mean 7.45) years from three primary schools in Nabire, Papua, Indonesia. The Indonesian National Growth Charts were used as references for height. Results 1: With 118.4 cm (SD 6.7) cm, trans-migrant 7-year old boys were almost 3 cm taller compared to their native-age-matched-peers (115.7 cm (5.0 SD) cm, p < 0.05). The case was different among the girls. Trans-migrant girls were not significantly taller than native girls. Material and Method 2: We re-analyzed the height data from over 300,000 infants, children and adolescents, age 0-18 year, from 34 Indonesian provinces. The data were obtained from the latest Indonesian 2013 National Basic Health Survey (NHBS), and have previously been used to construct National Indonesian Growth Charts. St. Nicolas House Analysis was used to translate correlation matrices into network graphs and visualizing chains of associations between parameters that were multiply correlated. Results 2: St. Nicolas House Analysis suggested that the growth of male sex were more sensitive to population crowding, and that crowding contributes to the greater height dimorphism in taller populations. Conclusion: Economic prosperity and increased population density stimulate male adult height to a greater extent than female adult height, and increase the sexual dimorphism in height among the tall populations of densely populated wealthy countries.

Beta Testing of a Gestational Diabetes Risk Reduction Intervention for American Indian and Alaska Native Teens.

American Indian and Alaska Native (AIAN) girls have double the risk of obesity, pregnancy, and gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) than the general U.S. The purpose of this study was to beta test Stopping GDM (SGDM), a GDM risk reduction intervention for at-risk AIAN teens, before beginning a randomized controlled trial. A sample of 11 AIAN mothers and daughters were recruited through an urban Indian health program. Daughters were at risk of GDM as assessed by a BMI ≥ 85th percentile. Pre- and posttest online questionnaires evaluated the online intervention (e-book and video). Mean pre- to posttest knowledge increased for mothers and daughters on diabetes prevention, reproductive health, and GDM knowledge. Daughters demonstrated an increased self-efficacy for healthy living and pregnancy planning. Satisfaction for the e-book, video, and online survey was moderately high to very high. The SGDM intervention is feasible and acceptable in AIAN mother-daughter dyads. These findings informed the SGDM intervention and the randomized controlled trial evaluation protocol.

“What to do when you’re raped”: Indigenous women critiquing and coping through a rhetoric of survivance

ABSTRACTNative women and girls suffer sexual violence at the highest rate of any demographic in the United States—primarily perpetrated by non-Native assailants. In this essay, we explore how dominant Euro-American discourses regarding trauma, sexual violence, and indigenous peoples complicate this epidemic. These discourses individualize trauma, assign it an unrealistic linear timeline that presupposes a stable subject position, and ignore the experiences of women of color. Such rhetoric renders Native bodies as disposable and disguises structural oppression by blaming women for the sexual violence committed against them. Ultimately, we argue that rhetoric of survivance, which combines survival, endurance, and resistance to assert Native presence over historical absence and perceived oblivion, creates a space in which communities disproportionately affected by violence can simultaneously practice collective coping methods while also challenging dominant discourses. To advance this argument we conduct a rhetorical analysis of the illustrated handbook, What to Do When You’re Raped: An ABC Handbook for Native Girls, which was produced by a Native American women’s organization to address sexual violence. We explore how four central characteristics of survivance—infinitive temporality, storytelling, collective agency, and structural critique—assert Native presence and make visible the problem of sexual violence against Native women.

Analyzed Selfie: Stereotype Enactment, Projection, and Identification Among Digitally Native Black Girls

This article explores identity development among adolescent Black girls in the context of digitized social media environments. In the age of Web 2.0 technology, Black girls are able to project their image and verbiage to articulate self. In this conceptual article, the phenomenological variant of ecological systems theory (PVEST) framework is used to understand the identity development of intersecting racial and gender identities among Black adolescent girls. This process of identity development is deemed in relation to and through enactment of sociocultural narratives (stereotypes) of a pending Black womanhood. We consider the psychological implications for mental health and wellness for identity development among digitally native Black adolescent girls, as it occurs publicly and against the backdrop of the constant, dynamic, and interactive social and consumptive media. Implications for clinical work to guide psychological intervention with adolescent digitally native Black girls will be presented.

822-P: Awareness, Knowledge, and Health Beliefs of American Indian/Alaska Native (AIAN) Girls and Their Mothers Regarding Risk Reduction of Gestational Diabetes Mellitus (GDM)

AIAN women have a higher risk for GDM and subsequently type 2 diabetes (T2D) than non-AIAN white females. We adapted a validated diabetes preconception counseling (PC) program for AIAN girls at high risk for GDM and their mothers. This paper presents preliminary baseline data, prior to the intervention, of both the girls and their mothers enrolled in an RCT to evaluate changes in GDM risk-reduction awareness, knowledge, health beliefs and behaviors after the Stopping GDM intervention. Data were collected using a dyadic model; both AIAN girls and their AIAN mothers (adult female caregiver) participated. These findings are on 27 mother (M) - daughter (D) dyads (n=54) from 2 of 4 sites (Southwestern U.S.). D (ages 12-24 years) were at risk for GDM as defined by BMI ≥85thpercentile or family history of T2D, and did not have diabetes (HbA1c &amp;lt; 6.5%). M’s mean (±SD) age was 41.3±14.1 years and 56% (n=15) had at least some college education; D’s mean age was 16.3±2.9 years and 89% were students. M and D completed online questionnaires separately on awareness, knowledge and health beliefs regarding GDM and reproductive health and healthy lifestyle. One open-ended question on awareness of GDM revealed that participants were unaware of GDM or the daughters’ risks. Mean pre-intervention knowledge scores were low for both M and D on diabetes prevention (M: 76.4+14.3, range=54-100%; D: 58.2+12.4, range=27-82%) and reproductive health and GDM knowledge (M: 67.2+11.2, range=46-85%; D: 35.0+18.3, range=0-62%). D had moderate levels of self-efficacy for healthy living (53.2±14.6) and pregnancy planning (86.4±22.6). Most Ds reported no communication with healthcare professionals (HCP) or their Ms regarding GDM or PC [(with HCP=15%; 8%, respectively), (with M= 15%; 4%,)]. Both AIAN mothers and daughters lacked awareness and knowledge of the girl’s risk for developing GDM. Developing culturally relevant PC programs could help decrease these risks. Disclosure D. Charron-Prochownik: None. S.M. Sereika: None. S.A. Stotz: None. A.F. Fischl: None. N. O'Banion: None. J. Powell: None. M.L. Aspaas: None. S. Goudeau: None. S.J. Thorkelson: None. S. Beirne: None. K.R. Moore: None. Funding National Institute of Nursing Research (1R01NR014831-01A1)

A mixed methods study of Black Girls' vulnerability to out-of-school suspensions: The intersection of race and gender

Although the disproportionate suspension of Black boys has been a longstanding issue, the apparent vulnerability of Black girls to harsh disciplinary practices is of recent concern to educators and researchers (see Crenshaw, Ocen, & Nanda, 2015). We used a sequential (qual → QUANT) mixed methods design to examine the out-of-school suspension (OSS) of Black girls. In-depth, qualitative interviews explored the experiences of 10 Black middle-school girls with OSSs, their caregivers and educators to generate hypotheses for, and then expand, statewide quantitative analyses. Participants described that Black girls were sanctioned more frequently and more harshly than were whites for the same behaviors. Quantitative analysis of cross-system, administrative data of 7th grade students in the state of Minnesota found that Black girls were overrepresented in OSS relative to white, Asian, and Hispanic boys and girls, and Native girls. Furthermore, Black girls were sanctioned more harshly than were white students for disruptive, disorderly and violent behaviors. Finally, qualitative data suggested strategies to reduce disproportionality in the frequency and severity of OSSs for Black girls. Educators, especially those in leadership roles, can work to eliminate sexual harassment and bullying experienced by Black girls; and create programs to build upon their self-advocacy such as developing supportive communities of other Black girls and trusted adults at school.

Reducing Risk for Gestational Diabetes Mellitus (GDM) Through a Preconception Counseling Program for American Indian/Alaska Native Girls: Perceptions From Women With Type 2 Diabetes or a History of GDM.

Purpose American Indian and Alaska Native (AIAN) women are disproportionately affected by gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM). GDM is a risk factor for subsequent diagnosis of type 2 diabetes (T2D) in both mother and offspring, yet there is minimal research being conducted in this population. The purpose of this portion of a larger 5-year study is to examine AIAN women’s experiences of having GDM or T2D during pregnancy, inform the development of a GDM risk reduction and preconception counseling (PC) program tailored to AIAN girls, and enhance mother-daughter communication and support within the program. Methods AIAN women with TD2 or a history of GDM (N = 5) were interviewed to understand their unique perspectives on diabetes and pregnancy, behaviors to reduce risk, and content for a PC education program for AIAN girls. Interviews were digitally recorded, transcribed verbatim, and analyzed using the constant comparison method to construct themes across the interviews. Results Four primary themes were constructed: lack of knowledge on GDM and GDM risk factors, importance of AIAN culture for health and wellness, suggestions for communication with AIAN girls to reduce risk of GDM, and the emotional impact of GDM diagnosis. Conclusions Participants wished they had known about risk factors for GDM and how to reduce their own risk of developing GDM. Findings from this study have been used to adapt an existing PC program, originally developed for non-AIAN girls with diabetes, for AIAN girls who do not have diabetes but have risk factors for developing GDM in future pregnancies.

Culturally Tailoring a Gestational Diabetes Risk Reduction Education Program for American Indian and Alaska Native Girls: Perspectives From Mothers and Daughters

American Indian and Alaska Native (AI/AN) adolescent women have greater risk of poor reproductive health outcomes, including unintended pregnancies and gestational diabetes (GDM), than adolescents in the general U.S. population. Raising awareness among youth about preventing unplanned pregnancies and GDM risk reduction principles is imperative, but there is little information to guide cultural tailoring of reproductive health interventions for this population.

Ecofeminist Activism and the Greening of Native America

Ancient female-centered Native American myths reveal pre-colonial attitudes about gender, gender roles, and sexuality as well as about human persons’ essential relations with the non-human world. Girls and women in these stories variously function as creators, embodiments of the sacred, and culture-bringers. After settler colonialism, the subsistence contract embodied in these women-centered myths was broken. On Native lands, unparalleled ecological disaster followed. Since then, Native people and their lands have suffered. Women and girls have doubly suffered from the colonizing culture and its patriarchal institutions as well as from their own cultures’ adopted misogyny. But in the last few decades, Native girls and women have taken the lead in rejecting the false choice between prosperity and sustainability. Their ecofeminist activism has spread throughout Native America, perhaps most successfully in the Southwest with the Hopi and Navajo Black Mesa Water Coalition and in North Dakota with the Water Protectors encampment on the Standing Rock Reservation to block the Dakota Access Oil Pipeline. This essay details those two inspirational projects that, in the words of Pueblo poet Simon Ortiz, bear witness to “a spring wind / rising / from Sand Creek.”

Evaluation of Lipid Peroxidation Parameters in Small Nationality - Tofalars, Living in Siberia

Background Individual biological effects of adaptation to extreme environmental conditions and reserve potentialities of an organism are, largely, genetically determined. One of the universal mechanisms of an organism’s defense under extreme conditions is the synthesis of unspecific factors - antioxidants. The aim of this work was to study peculiarities of lipid peroxidation and antioxidant defense in Tofalars versus non-indigenous girls. Methods Tofalars are the inhabitants of the Siberia, living in highland zone. They concern to the small population groups of the North (756 persons). The blood samples were taken from 35 teenages girls (17 Tofalars (indigenous), average age = 13.94±0.44, and 18 Caucasian (non-indigenous) girls, average age = 14.06±0.42). Spectrophotometric and fluorometric methods for studying the lipid peroxidation and antioxidant status have been used. Results A comparative content analysis of the primary lipid peroxidation products - diene conjugates - showed higher values of this parameter in the indigenous girls (1.5 times, p=0.0009), as compared to non-indigenous, with no changes in the content of the final TBA-active products (p>0.05). In antioxidant defense system of native girls, there were registered higher values of the total AOA - 1.45 times higher (p=0.0006), tocopherol - 1.29 times higher (p=0.0227 and retinol -1.34 times higher (p=0.0420) as compared to non-indigenous girls. Conclusion The differences in lipid peroxidation and antioxidant defense status between Tofalars and Caucasians have been observed. The probable explanation to this serves as genetic factors and metabolism features at Tofalars in comparison with Caucasians living at the same conditions. We can conclude that under the extreme climate of Tofalars girls of the native ethnos, in contrast to non-indigenous, exhibit adaptive reactions of lipid peroxidation.

Maintenance of Antibody Avidity in Alaska Native Adolescents Receiving Quadrivalent Human Papillomavirus (HPV) Vaccine

BackgroundHuman papillomavirus (HPV) is the most common sexually transmitted infection worldwide, and some types are causally associated with cervical and other types of cancers in women and men. Currently available prophylactic anti‐HPV vaccines are highly effective, eliciting high antibody titers. In the United States, the most commonly used HPV vaccine through 2015 was quadrivalent vaccine (4vHPV), which protects against HPV types 6, 11, 16, and 18. However, the minimum antibody threshold required for protection has not been established. Antibody avidity, a measure of how strongly antibodies bind their cognate antigen, is associated with clearance of many pathogens, and has been proposed as an additional measure of antibody activity against HPV. Few antibody avidity studies have been conducted on HPV vaccine recipients.ObjectiveWe assessed antibody titers and antibody avidity three years after 4vHPV vaccination among a longitudinal cohort of Alaskan Native girls.MethodsParticipants were Alaskan Native children and adolescents who were vaccinated with 3 doses of 4vHPV (0, 2, and 6 month dosing schedule) between the ages of 9–13 years during 2011–2014 and enrolled in a longitudinal cohort study where antibody response will be followed over a 20 year period. Appropriate consent was obtained. At the time of this study, a total of 34 female participants had provided serum specimens following each dose of 4vHPV and once each year for at least three years following vaccine series completion. We assessed antibody avidity on a total of 202 specimens from these 34 unique participants. Antibody titers to HPV types 6, 11, 16, and 18 were determined using multiplex ELISA. Avidity indices were determined using a modified multiplex ELISA, and calculated as the ratio of IgG antibody bound in the treated versus untreated sample wells.ResultsBoth antibody titer and avidity index increased following each dose of 4vHPV for all four HPV types. There was no significant difference in avidity index following dose 2 versus 3 for either HPV type 6 or HPV type 16. Although antibody titers decreased in the year following 4vHPV series completion, avidity indices remained stable through three years post series completion for all four HPV types. There was no correlation between avidity index and antibody titer for any HPV type. Mean avidity indices and antibody titers after each dose of 4vHPV and annually through three years following series completion for HPV types 6, 11, 16, 18 are shown in the table.ConclusionsAntibody avidity following 4vHPV vaccination of Alaska Native girls with 3‐doses of 4vHPV (at 0, 2, and 6 months) remained persistently high for at least 3 years after vaccination, despite a drop in antibody titer. Although their clinical significance is not clear, the persistence of quality HPV type‐specific antibodies (indicated by avidity) could reflect an effective affinity maturation of B cells that can aid in long‐term protection even as antibody titers drop. Further study of these participants is underway to continue to assess their long‐term antibody response to HPV vaccination.Support or Funding InformationCenters for Disease Control and Prevention Mean avidity index and antibody titer following each dose of 4vHPV and annually through three years post series completion for HPV types 6, Time of blood draw HPV6 HPV11 HPV16 HPV18 Avidity Index Ab titer (AU/mL) Avidity Index Ab titer (AU/mL) Avidity Index Ab titer (IU/mL) Avidity Index Ab titer (IU/mL) Post Dose 1 0.42 6.5 0.36 11.6 0.43 28.7 0.38 8 Post Dose 2 0.63 47.3 0.57 58.1 0.74 237.1 0.57 64.7 Post Dose 3 0.63 343.7 0.67 509.5 0.77 1622.6 0.69 561.3 Post Series Year 1 0.64 55.2 0.67 66.8 0.79 259.3 0.67 77.8 Post Series Year 2 0.64 44.7 0.66 68.7 0.79 246.7 0.68 77.9 Post Series Year 3 0.64 25.4 0.66 36.8 0.78 157.1 0.66 56.7

War in the Tropics

In the Home Box Office mini-series Band of Brothers (2001), one of the soldiers on a troop ship bound for England remarks: "Right now some lucky bastard's headed for the Pacific, get put on some tropical island, surrounded by six naked native girls, helping him cut up coconuts so he can hand feed them to flamingos". This paradisiacal view of the Pacific and tropical areas has existed for centuries, and despite European settlers' developing familiarity with the area, it is a misconception which has continued to be propagated in war films set in the tropics. These war films depict the tropics as antipodean utopias which become corrupted by the ravages of war. Thus, while many of these films attempt to display war realistically, they still hold to the historical view of the tropics as unspoiled and pure—until, of course, war intrudes onto the scene. These films rarely examine the effect of the war on the local inhabitants, but rather deal with soldiers coping with the disjunction between their preconceived notions of the area and the reality before them. Crucially as well, war is depicted as a greater crime against nature (both human and environmental) when fought in the tropics rather than in Europe. This view is promulgated in the representation of battles fought in these films. In films set in the Pacific theatre during World War Two, and more recent ones set during the Vietnam War, the battle for American and Australian soldiers is as much about coping with their surroundings as with fighting the enemy, who are often rarely seen, or only viewed in long shot. War films set in the tropics depict 'war as hell' because of the environment, which is by turns remote, mystifying, and generally rural, rather than urban, 'civilised' and familiar, as it is in the case of the majority of war films set in Europe.

An Internationally Comparative Study of Immigration and Adolescent Emotional and Behavioral Problems: Effects of Generation and Gender

PurposeAlthough the potential consequences of immigration for adolescent problem behaviors have been addressed in many former studies, internationally comparative research is scarce. This study investigated the impact of immigration on four indicators of adolescents' emotional and behavioral problems in 10 countries, taking into account gender and immigrant generation as moderating factors. MethodsAnalyses were based on data from 11-, 13-, and 15-year-old adolescents participating in the Health Behavior in School-aged Children study in Denmark, Germany, Greece, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, the Netherlands, Spain, the United States, and Wales (total N = 53,218). ResultsBoth first- and second-generation immigrant adolescents reported higher levels of physical fighting and bullying and a lower life satisfaction than native adolescents, whereas second-generation immigrant adolescents reported more psychosomatic symptoms than native adolescents. Effect sizes varied considerable for the different outcomes, and similar effects were found for first- and second-generation immigrant adolescents. Differences in these indicators of emotional and behavioral problems between immigrant and native adolescents did not vary significantly with the receiving country. With two exceptions, effects of immigrant status were similar for boys and girls. Although no differences in psychosomatic symptoms were found between first-generation immigrant and native girls, first-generation immigrant boys reported less psychosomatic symptoms than native boys. Furthermore, both second-generation immigrant boys and girls reported higher levels of physical fighting than their native peers, but differences were more pronounced for boys than for girls. ConclusionsOverall, the results of this study support a risk perspective on the impact of immigration on adolescent problem behaviors.

“More than a Tree, Less than a Woman” Sex and Empire: the Italian Case

This article will examine a fundamental drive that indirectly supported Italian expansionist lust in Eritrea, Ethiopia and Somalia between the late‐nineteenth century and the Second World War. These colonies in Africa provided Italian men with sexual excess, a place outside the boundaries and mores regulating sexuality in the metropolis. Native girls were considered to be “full grown” by the age of eleven, bigamy was rampant, rape and homosexuality tolerated, and slavery overlooked. One ex‐soldier remembered that in Africa women “reeked of booty”, others filled their memoirs with accounts of the purchase of women. The conquest of Somalia did not offer the Italian State more than a strategic position on the Indian Ocean but well into the 1960s it remained in the common imagination, as the land inhabited by the “black female Vikings”, the “most beautiful women in the world”. This paper will also analyze changes in the regulation of sexuality in the period of consolidation of the Italian Empire with the Fascist “Laws for the Defence of the Race”, 11 November 1938, while documenting the hard to die practises and fantasies of colonial desire. The tension between desire and the asymmetrical power to realise it, will illustrate a one‐sided dream, ultimately a colonial nightmare.