Nations Environment Programme Research Articles

Economic policy of environmental protection facing modern challenges

Issues of environmental protection in the 21st century are becoming more and more crucial for leading countries and, therefore, for the whole world. This has led to growing the effects of global warming and the lack of certain resources, the reduction of which can cause incredible damage to the world economy. The reaction to the degradation of nature in the USA, Japan, Germany, France, Great Britain, and other economically developed countries was manifested by the creation of a legal system in the field of environmental protection. The public ecological movement was and is considered to be an essential impetus for the development of legislation in the field of environmental protection in the mentioned countries. Laws adopted in the field of environmental protection are mostly a reaction to an acute ecological problem. Environmental protection issues differ between countries. It is known that developed countries regulate environmental pollution, the processing of chemical waste, and the use of chemical materials at work with special legislative acts. Some developing countries do not have these laws, which allow multinational companies to pollute at higher levels than would be allowed in their own countries. Countries are trying to reach a consensus on many environmental issues, reduce emissions, and find new ways of production that will not cause damage to the environment. Keywords: Environmental protection, Economic policy, Environment pollution, Paris Green Agreement, National environmental programs, EU Climate and Energy Plan

National environmental programs and local social-ecological system change in dryland China: implications for environmental governance

National environmental programs and local social-ecological system change in dryland China: implications for environmental governance

Novel DNA-based test for the identification of benthic diatoms of European freshwater waterbodies (WAT-DIMON)

Diatoms are unicellular eukaryotic organisms, which have been exploited over the years for effective freshwater bioassessment. Therefore, they are excellent bioindicators, routinely used in national environmental monitoring programs all over Europe within the Water Framework Directive (WFD) 2000/60 /EC (Foster et al., 2000) and CEN standards (CEN, 2018). Over the years, new technologies have been introduced to this field to maximise and improve the time and cost required for freshwater bioassessment. The application of DNA metabarcoding for the characterisation of benthic diatom communities for WFD was recently introduced (Vasselon et al. 2017, Kelly et al. 2018). Through this technique, the identification of the species present in one environmental sample, is established using genetic variability and is characterised by a short DNA fragment called a barcode (Vasselon et al., 2019). The Wat-Dimon Eurostars project aim at creating a novel genomic test for the identification of European benthic diatoms. This new DNA-based test could be routinely implemented in national environmental monitoring programs all over Europe within the Water Framework Directive (WFD) 2000/60 /EC and CEN standards. In the near future, metabarcoding can complement and/or replace the traditional ecological assessments based on the morpho-taxonomy methodology approach needing taxonomic expertise and been subjected to scientific bias. Additionally, the project aims at developing a complementary bioinformatics tool for the biotechnological interpretation of the results. Such product will allow the prompt response to the environmental needs, the early assessment of environmental quality and early treatment response. The study will be developed and validated along a longitudinal gradient in the south part of Europe (Portugal, Spain, Cyprus), including four different biogeographical regions (Macaronesia, Atlantic, Alpine and Mediterranean). The method will cover all steps, from sampling and DNA extraction of diatom assemblages and amplification of DNA barcodes using universal primers for diatoms. The amplified products will be sequenced using Illumina MiSeq. Then, existing bioinformatic pipelines will be adjusted to quality-filter the high number of sequences from the samples and identify them by comparison with reference databases (Diat.Barcode, BOLD, GenBank). Enhancing these databases with diatom species prevalent in the different biogeographical regions assayed will be essential as existing databases are biased to more northerly regions and do not take into consideration harsh, extreme climatic conditions which are prominent in the Mediterranean and Macaronesia regions (Fig. 1). The project focuses on the rbcL gene and will used 18S gene only as an alternative or complementary tool if any problematic taxa appear. CEN, 2018. CEN/TR 17245: Water quality – Technical report for the routine sampling of benthic diatoms from rivers and lakes adapted for metabarcoding analyses. CEN/TC 230/WG 23 – Aquat. Macrophytes Algae 1–8. https://doi.org/CEN/TR 17245:2018 Foster, D., Wood, A., Griffiths, M., 2000. THE WATER FRAMEWORK DIRECTIVE (2000/60/EC) – AN INTRODUCTION Dave Foster – Policy Advisor (Europe), Aram Wood EP Scientist (Water), Dr Martin Griffiths – Head of Water Quality, Environment Agency, Head Office, Rio House, Waterside Drive, Aztec West, Almon 7–9. Kelly et al. (2018). A DNA based diatom metabarcoding approach for Water Framework Directive classification of rivers. Environment Agency. Vasselon et al. (2017). Assessing ecological status with diatoms DNA metabarcoding: Scaling-up on a WFD monitoring network (Mayotte island, France). Ecological Indicators. 82:1-12 Vasselon, V., Rimet, F., Domaizon, I., Monnier, O., Reyjol, Y., Bouchez, A., 2019. Assessing pollution of aquatic environments with diatoms’ DNA metabarcoding: Experience and developments from France Water Framework Directive networks. Metabarcoding and Metagenomics 3, 101–115. https://doi.org/10.3897/mbmg.3.39646

Экологический ракурс пандемии COVID-19: новый шанс для “зеленой” экономики

The article investigates the changes in environment that occurred in response to economic processes during the COVID‑19 pandemic (2019–2021), and related transformation of socio-political attitudes towards Green Policy and Green Economy. From the environmentalistic point of view, the pandemic played a twofold role. On the one part, it allowed the nature to “take a break” from an excessive anthropogenic pressure on the atmosphere and hydrosphere, and once again mobilized the humanity to reconsider the principles of interaction with the environment. On the other part, different types of pollution (daily and medical waste, plastic) increased dramatically; funding of international and national environmental programs was cut due to the economic recession worldwide. Nevertheless, the multidimensional crisis caused by the pandemic gave a new chance to the Green Economy. The most influential states of the world (the EU countries, USA, China and Russia) actively implement the Green Economy instruments at the state level. This process incorporates all economy sectors: finances, energy, industry, transport, agriculture and other. The European Union which had taken this path before the pandemic started is in an advanced position. At the same time, the foundations of the future environment-oriented economic policy are already enshrined in official documents (strategies, action plans, legislative acts, etc.) adopted by the leading nations thus far. Noteworthy is that the COVID‑19 crisis has updated the green political and economic agenda globally, regardless of differences between the states, which verifies the importance and necessity of agreeing a conceptually new approach to interaction with the environment in the short and long term.

Environmental Challenges and Conservation of Natural Resources: The Need for Effective Environmental Mechanisms

The national environmental program is geared towards reducing the negative impacts of human operations on the environment so as to enhance an eco-friendly atmosphere. The objective is to minimize and, where possible, eliminate all the negative impacts and footprints, in a collective drive to protect the environment. Therefore, the National Policy on Environment identified the key sectors of the economy that require the integration of environmental concerns and sustainability with development. The needs to conserve natural resources and manage waste generated by the increasing population were discussed. Corruption was pointed out as a key challenging factor to the implementation of environmental regulatory policies. Inclusion of green chemistry policy, enactment of its enabling laws as well as effective implementation of environmental protection policies were recommended to enhance national sustainable development.

Validation of POLDER GRASP aerosol optical retrieval over China using SONET observations

Monitoring fine mode aerosol pollutants is one of priorities in national environmental programs. Aerosol Optical Depth (AOD) and fine mode AOD are key parameters for estimation of particulate matter. POLDER/GRASP retrieval provides probably the most detailed aerosol products globally for 2005 – 2013. Current studies are focused on understanding the value of new satellite products for potential monitoring of air quality over China. As part of this objective, the quantitative evaluation of the products over China, a statistical comparison of total AOD, fine mode AOD and Fine Mode Fraction (FMF) with Sun–Sky Radiometer Observation Network (SONET) products is conducted. Two of available POLDER aerosol products: GRASP «models» and «high-precision» were evaluated at 8 SONET sites over China in this study. The results show the best agreement of the total AOD at 490 nm from «models» approach with AOD (500 nm) from SONET with correlation coefficient of ~0.96, slope of ~0.9, RMSE of 0.14 and bias (intercept) of 0.04, with about 76% of retrievals inside of Gfrac ranges. The validation results of the fine mode AOD at 490 nm with AOD the fine mode SONET-SDA product (500 nm) are quite comparable for both «high-precision» and «models» approaches, with slightly better results for «high-precision» data showing correlation coefficient of ~0.95, slope of ~0.78, RMSE of 0.14 and bias (intercept) of 0.07, with about 68% of retrievals inside of Gfrac ranges. The analysis is demonstrated that POLDER/GRASP results are one of most suitable aerosol products for characterization of FMF (Fine Mode Fraction) of aerosol. For example, compared with MODIS, the FMF from POLDER/GRASP is significantly closer to SONET-SDA FMF, with Gfrac increasing from 16.75% (MODIS) to 62.35% (POLDER/GRASP). Moreover, there is a clear similarity of spatial distribution of the fine mode AOD from GRASP with ground-level PM2.5 observations.

Developing place-based program objectives for a national parks environmental program through transformative research

This paper reflects on the efficacy of the “kids-in-parks” program offered by various national parks in South Africa. Through transformative research, the objectives of the program are reviewed to facilitate future program assessment. Transformative research requires the use of mixed methods; qualitative input was gained from national park educators who assisted with the development of an open-ended questionnaire to gather data from teachers who participated in the program offered at three national parks. A total of 240 respondents provided feedback that was analyzed thematically and statistically, leading to the identification of new outcomes for the program.

The Homestay Phenomenon: Expedient Homes in the Majestic Cordillera Highlands

Utilizing combination of quantitative and qualitative research approaches using the techniques of survey, open-ended questions and interviews, this study aimed to: (a) describe Batad’s geographical location and ecotourism attractions; (b) analyze Batad’s Homestay as a potential economic driver to boost local tourism efforts; (c) identify current enablers as well as challenges of the homestay industry; and (d) propose relevant recommendations to ensure the sustainability of the homestay industry. Results revealed that Batad is one of the 18 barangays of the municipality of Banaue, province of Ifugao, Philippines. It is famous for its amphitheater-like rice terraces, one of the five clusters of rice terraces in Ifugao that was inscribed in the 1995 UNESCO World Heritage Site list. This once isolated farming community is steadily transforming itself into a tourism community. It was found that some local attractions in Batad consist of: (a) Batad’s Rice Terraces resembling an amphitheater; (b) the Tappiyah Waterfalls; (c) the Awa view; (d) Sitio Patpat; (e) Batad’s Traditional Ifugao huts; and (f) Batad’s Socio-Cultural Activities. The homestay owners were dominated by female entrepreneurs, in their middle adulthood and were mostly Batad residents. Most homestays have limited staff as the homestay industry was only a part time source of income. Capacitation trainings mostly consisted of first aid or emergency response trainings, front office, social etiquettes, banquet and housekeeping. Some enabling mechanisms comprised: continuing presence of local and foreign tourists; global, national and local presence or efforts to preserve the rice terraces; infrastructural project especially the paving of roads that lead to Batad and electrification; national and local environmental education programs; rich ecotourism sites; and capacitation or assistance extended by local and national agencies. Some challenges comprised: limited contribution in community environmental education awareness; limited representation in tourism development; lacked of internet, cell phone and television signals; inadequate marketing strategies; inexperienced homestay staff; lack of waste disposal and drainage; continuing professionalization of staff; how to create unique brand image; and inadequate financial support for farmers to sustain the rice terraces.

Invasion of Danish and Adjacent Waters by the Comb Jelly Mnemiopsis leidyi—10 Years After

The invasive ctenophore Mnemiopsis leidyi, which comes from North America’s east coast, was observed in Danish waters for the first time in 2007. Since then, the new invader has every summer spread in Danish and adjacent waters (i.e. North Sea, Limfjorden, Skagerrak, Kattegat, Belt Sea, Baltic Sea). The invasive comb jelly has apparently come to stay, as it has no effective enemies. Possible harmful effects of M. leidyi which feeds voraciously on zooplankton, fish eggs and larvae, have so far not been thoroughly studied in Danish waters, although dedicated attempts have been made in Limfjorden and in the central Baltic Sea. Over the last 10 years, the Danish national environmental monitoring program did not include gelatinous zooplankton, but new initiatives have been recently taken. A brief overview of our current knowledge on the impact of M. leidyi in Danish waters is given here.

ENVIRONMENTAL COMPLIANCE AND ENFORCEMENT

Each country faces a unique set of challenges and capacities to implement its environmental laws. However, there are fundamental elements in all countries that form the basis of effective environmental compliance and enforcement programs and of legal systems. These common principles, based on the collective knowledge and experience of the International Network for Environmental Compliance and Enforcement (INECE) and reflective of international good practice, may be used to improve national environmental compliance and enforcement programs.
 These principles are divided into five sections: (1) environmental results and shared responsibility, (2) goals and strategies, (3) good governance, rule of law and compliance, (4) structure and resources, and (5) continuous evaluation and improvement.

Local institutions and farmer participation in agri-environmental schemes

Minimizing environmental harm from diffuse water quality impacts from farms is a longstanding problem in agricultural policy. Agri-environmental schemes are programs that apply information-based strategies coupled with financial payments to incentivize farmers to adopt less damaging farming practices. Gaining farmer participation in these programs is often problematic due to the complexity of scheme design and implementation, program rules or conflicting goals of policy-makers and farmers. This study examines the influence of local institutions associated with farming subcultures (such as co-operative harvesting groups or practice norms) and, the “localized” institutions that are introduced to facilitate scheme delivery under decentralized governance (such as regional extension networks). Using the case of the Australian Government's ‘Reef Rescue’ program, the study draws on focus group interviews with sugarcane growers and agricultural extension officers. The analysis explores how farmers perceive the sponsors and goals of these schemes, their own participation, and any risks and benefits they associate with that participation. Some of the main risks of participation included: possible disruption to local economic cooperation amongst farmers that relied on continuation of shared farming practices; inequitable financial burdens of participation; lost farm productivity; and, interference of central governments in their farm business. The study finds that farmer participation in these national environmental programs is mediated by both local and imported institutions. Together, these institutions buffer the culturally and politically unpalatable aspects of the scheme and increase the financial and cultural gains for farmers.

Curriculum Option for Gender Equality: A Channel for Social and Economic Securities in Nigeria

Gender inequality has been one of the major forces that threatens the security and economic development of many societies world ever. Nigeria is not an exception in these social vices, where women are not avail with the opportunity to render their services for the general growth of the nation. This paper attempts to advance a curriculum option, that will provide women with the potentials to give their contributions in social and economic developments, that will translate into a positive security atmosphere in Nigeria. I. Introduction The critical role women play in partnership with men in creating and implementing a sustainable pattern of development, has in recent years become a topical issue world over. This is in recognition of the importance, the women play in the process of creating a well balanced society, with a view to make the world a better place to live. Nigeria as a nation cannot be an exception in this positive movement. The neglect women experience from development partners, in terms of their needs, has been the reason for the deterioration of the environment, in the developing nation like Nigeria. This trend has been one of the causes of failure in our developmental process. This has amplified women's voices and strengthened their call for a sustainable future for their children and generation to come. This movement by women to redefine development, has motivated planners to take a wholistic approach that will incorporate women in sustainable development. However, this approach has not considered curriculum option in this direction. The 1991 global assembly of women and the environment (British council, (1998) sponsored by the United Nation's Environment Programme (UNEP) which invited representatives of both government and non- governmental organizations to Miami, Florida to confer with 215 women who have initiated successful environmental projects in communities all over the world. These women, many of them faced daily with the responsibility for feeding and protecting the health of their families, took action within the spheres of influence traditionally open to them. They designed smokeless stoves, solar cookers, solar green houses, others are, how to clean up local water suppliers, altered farming methods and successful cultivated degraded lands. Women are also giving immeasurable contributions in development through their work with non- governmental organization (NGO's) when the non-government organization sponsored the world women's congress for a healthy planet, also in Miami, Florida over 1,500 women and men from more than 75 countries engaged in a spirited exchange of views on a variety of environmental related issues. The communique offered three guiding principles. 1. Global equity giving priority to meeting the basic human needs of people 2. Resource ethics, calling for sustainable use of natural resources and responsibility towards future generations. 3. Empowerment of women at all levels to the achievement of principles of equity social justice. The world is in desperate need of the good sense, determination and compassion exhibited by women in these international conferences. It is becoming increasingly clear that the talent and capabilities of women have been seriously undermined. Hence, if women are fully educated, through our curriculum provisions, they would have participated in decision-making process and policy making at all levels of the society.

Afghanistan: rich resource base and existing environmental despoliation

Because of its climatically stressed dry land and high altitudes, coupled with severe human despoliation amid three decades of war and known rampant corruption, Afghanistan has long had severe environmental problems. Overgrazing, deforestation, “deshrubification,” soil erosion, soil salinization, ground and surface water contamination and water overuse beyond natural recharge, climate change, threats to biodiversity, and natural hazards are the background problems already causing strong environmental stress. With the advent of the newly recognized mineral resources that will be exploited, additional environmental stressors are likely. Agencies of the United Nations, in concert with new national environmental laws and programs, offer some potential for remediation of environmental problems in the face of unrelenting societal pressures to ignore them. Whether Afghanistan will rise out of its status as a failed state depends in some large way upon whether the newly recognized mineral resources are exploited in environmentally benign ways.

Request from the European Commission related to the safeguard clause invoked by Hungary on maize MON810 according to Article 23 of Directive 2001/18/EC - Scientific opinion of the Panel on Genetically Modified Organisms.

Request from the European Commission related to the safeguard clause invoked by Hungary on maize MON810 according to Article 23 of Directive 2001/18/EC - Scientific opinion of the Panel on Genetically Modified Organisms.

Foreign Trade in Environmental Products; The WTO Regulations and Environmental Programs

The aim of this paper is to present some aspects related to the Multilateral Trade Regulations and transnational and national environmental programs, from the point of view of their implications for foreign trade in environmental products. It should be noted that the elimination of trade barriers increases the efficiency of the world economic system by enabling countries to specialize in those sectors in which they possess economic advantages, which includes those sectors in which they possess favorable natural environmental conditions. In the latter half of the 1990’s one could observe a rapid and dynamic increase in the environmental protection industry’s share in the world economy. The overall global value of production in the environmental protection industry was estimated at 550 billion USD in the year 2001. In relative terms, this environmental market is not as large as the steel or agriculture markets, but roughly the same size as the pharmaceuticals and information technology markets. The environmental policy in the “old” and also “new” EU countries contributes to the achievement of the main goals of the global sustainable development strategy via the development of cleaner production and by the support for foreign trade in environmental friendly goods. The results of the empirical foreign trade analysis of trade in environmental products which are presented in the paper cover 11 countries of the OECD, including the USA, seven “old” EU member states, and one “new” member state - Poland . It is based on an international comparable database for environmental friendly goods, calculated by the author according to the OECD requirements (OECD-EUROSTAT, WTO, 1999). The analysis enables the author to present some important trends in foreign trade affecting the main exporters and importers of environmental goods in the USA and the EU. The analysis is also related to some regulations issued by the Committee for Trade and Environment of the WTO, with special reference to the conclusions of the Fourth and Fifth Ministerial Conferences in Doha and Cancun. The paper will also examine the effects of environmental measures on market access within the multilateral liberalization process.

Ozone column retrieval from solar UV irradiance measurements at ground level: Sensitivity tests and uncertainty estimation

Since the discovery of the stratospheric ozone depletion in the 1980s [World Meteorological Organization/United Nations Environment Programme (WMO/UNEP), 1994; Solomon, 1999; Staehelin et al., 2001], the interest of its measurement has substantially increased. Indeed, this gas highly absorbs the dangerous UV radiation and preserves the biosphere. Long series of measurements of total ozone column and of solar UV radiation are needed to define climatologies of both UV and ozone and to study the impact of the ozone depletion at the Earth surface. Total ozone column is determined at Villeneuve d'Ascq, France, by a differential absorption method, using global spectral UV measurements performed with a Jobin Yvon spectroradiometer by the Laboratoire d'Optique Atmospherique. This method is based on the comparison between two irradiance ratios, one simulated beforehand and stored in a lookup table (LUT) and one calculated from the measured spectrum [Stamnes et al., 1991]. This paper presents the method used to improve the choice of the different irradiances used to calculate the ratios and presents the five irradiance ratios that are finally kept. Some sensitivity tests are performed in order to find the validity range of a LUT and the number of LUTs needed. These tests reveal that the aerosol Ångström coefficient, the aerosol optical depth, and the atmospheric vertical profiles may induce errors in the ozone retrieval. That makes it necessary to calculate 21 LUTs and to select one of them depending on the season and on the aerosol properties. Then an estimation of the uncertainty of the method is performed, enabling us to conclude that the method leads to approximately 3% relative uncertainty. The results for the clear days of the last 3 years at Villeneuve d'Ascq are presented, as well as a comparison with Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer data. In most of the cases, both values agree to within 5%, but some cases present larger relative differences.

Microbiological and Sanitary Quality of Recreational Seawaters of Southern Portugal

Three microbiological criteria (European Economic Community, World Health Organ- ization/United Nations Environment Program and European Union) for water quality have been comparatively evaluated in a resort zone of southern Portugal, located at the Ria Formosa (Algarve). The results obtained in this study suggest that the three compared directives adequately classified the bathing zones according to their fecal pollution level. However, none of the directives establish a sanitary classification of the recreational use of the bathing zones. By the use of the Cumulative Con- tamination Index applied in this study, classification based on both the level of fecal pollution and on the sanitary condition of the bathing zones has been achieved. The application of this new approach to the monitoring of bathing waters allows us to propose a new criterion of water quality based on the coliphage levels (Ph80 = 300 pfu 100 mL −1 and Ph95 = 2000 pfu 100 mL −1 ) for inclusion in the new water quality regulations. Coliphages have been shown to have a close correlation with the presence of pathogenic microorganisms, and with the fecal pollution levels of recreational seawaters. However, none of the microbial indicators tested ensured detection of pathogen presence.

A comparison of periodic survey designs employing multi-stage sampling

Sampling designs considered for a national scale environmental monitoring programme are compared. Specifically, design strategies designed to monitor one aspect of this environmental programme, agro-ecosystem health, are assessed. Two types of panel survey designs are evaluated within the framework of two-stage sampling. Comparisons of these designs are discussed with regard to precision, cost, and other issues that need to be considered in planning long-term surveys. To compare precision, the underlying variance of a simple estimator of mean difference is derived for each of the two designs. A variance and cost model accounting for the different rotational sampling schemes across designs are developed. Optimum stage allocation for each design are assessed with the variance-cost models. The best choice of design varied with the conditions underlying the variance model and the degree of other sources of survey error expected in the programme.

FAO programmes for prevention, regulation, and control of mycotoxins in food.

The article provides information on recent past and current activities carried out by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) at national, regional, and international levels to assist member countries in overcoming the problems raised by mycotoxins in foods and feeds. It gives special emphasis to the preventive aspects at the stages of production and storage of those commodities which are particularly sensitive to mycotoxin contamination. Specific projects implemented by the FAO in various countries to prevent and control mycotoxin contamination are cited with particular reference to the on-going FAO/United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) Regional Training Network for Mycotoxin Control in Asia. The article also provides an update of the Codex Alimentarius effort to establish international guideline levels for different mycotoxins in various foodstuffs and agricultural commodities and to develop sampling plans for aflatoxin control in peanuts and maize and their products. It proposes a set of recommended actions at various levels to monitor and control mycotoxin levels in foods and to promote international cooperation in this field.

The Montreal Protocol and essential use exemptions.

The Montreal Protocol is an international treaty to phase out chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and other substances which destroy stratospheric ozone. The target date for the ban in developed countries, 1 January 2000, was subsequently advanced to 1 January 1996, with CFC production allowed temporarily for uses deemed 'essential' by the Parties. Seventeen governments submitted nominations to the United Nations (UN) Environment Programme requesting essential use exemptions for metered dose inhalers (MDIs). The nominations were reviewed by committees of technical experts and recommendations were considered at the Sixth Meeting of the Parties to the Protocol in October 1994. The Parties granted an exemption for the use of CFCs in MDIs for the treatment of asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) during 1996 and 1997. The European Union (EU) accelerated its own CFC phase-out date to 1 January 1995, also building in the possibility of 'essential use' exemptions. In July 1994 the European Commission announced exemption for MDIs from this deadline. Patients and physicians can be confident that MDIs will remain available for the foreseeable future. Furthermore, the small quantity of CFCs which has been exempted for use in MDIs will add very little to the existing environmental burden in the atmosphere.