National Marine Conservation Area Research Articles

Building collaborative monitoring programs to manage for ecological sustainability in multi-use marine protected areas: Parks Canada’s national marine conservation areas

Parks Canada collaborates with partners to manage a growing system of national marine conservation areas (NMCAs) and national marine conservation area reserves (NMCARs). These ecologically and culturally varied marine protected areas are established to represent the rich diversity of Canada’s oceans and Great Lakes. They support a broad range of uses within specific zones, including recreation, tourism, fishing, shipping, and Indigenous rights-based activities. Long-term monitoring is a critical tool for tracking changes in marine ecosystems, developing strategies to protect and conserve ecological and cultural values, responding to environmental threats, and ensuring ecologically sustainable use of marine resources that provide long-term societal benefits. Monitoring involves working closely with Indigenous partners, federal departments, provincial/territorial governments, coastal communities, and others (e.g., fishing and tourism sectors, non-governmental organizations, academia). As part of larger seascapes, NMCAs are managed using an ecosystem approach, which requires information on the state of marine biodiversity, threats, and pressures on marine ecosystems, including levels or impacts of marine uses. Each NMCA monitors a site-specific suite of indicators covering these key characteristics that are then integrated to inform decision-making. The monitoring framework is intended to enable a comprehensive, nationally consistent approach to monitoring and reporting while adapting to local needs and governance. Successes, challenges, and lessons learned through the implementation of the framework are highlighted through place-based examples.

A feasibility study for the application of climate change vulnerability assessments on species in the Tallurutiup Imanga National Marine Conservation Area

Abstract Climate change is disproportionately affecting Arctic ecosystems and their resident species, but knowledge gaps complicate conservation planning. A proof‐of‐concept application of existing trait‐based vulnerability assessment frameworks were applied to nine species from three different taxa (cetaceans, pinnipeds, marine fish) to determine their vulnerability under the RCP 8.5 emissions scenario. A literature review and data gap analysis were performed to quantify vulnerability and recommend future research priorities. Each assessed species was found to be highly vulnerable to climate change, with char, cod, and walrus being the most vulnerable. The largest data gaps include outdated or missing abundance measurements mortality rates in both marine mammals and fish, and reproductive behaviours for fish specifically. Future assessments should consider multiple emissions scenarios that match the ranges of migratory species not confined to the TINMCA. Providing a method to preliminarily evaluate climate change vulnerability may help mitigate issues brought by limited species experts, such as respondent fatigue. More refined scores will require the assistance of species experts, including biologists and Indigenous knowledge holders.

Shallow subtidal marine benthic communities of Nachvak Fjord, Nunatsiavut, Labrador: A glimpse into species composition and drivers of their distribution.

Marine fjords along the northern Labrador coast of Arctic Canada are influenced by freshwater, nutrients, and sediment inputs from ice fields and rivers. These ecosystems, further shaped by both Atlantic and Arctic water masses, are important habitats for fishes, marine mammals, seabirds, and marine invertebrates and are vital to the Labrador Inuit who have long depended on these areas for sustenance. Despite their ecological and socio-cultural importance, these marine ecosystems remain largely understudied. Here we conducted the first quantitative underwater scuba surveys, down to 12 m, of the nearshore marine ecology of Nachvak Fjord, which is surrounded by Torngat Mountains National Park located in Nunatsiavut, the Indigenous lands claim region of northeastern Canada. Our goal was to provide the Nunatsiavut Government with a baseline of the composition and environmental influences on the subtidal community in this isolated region as they work towards the creation of an Indigenous-led National Marine Conservation Area that includes Nachvak Fjord. We identified four major benthic habitat types: (1) boulders (2) rocks with sediment, (3) sediment with rocks, and (4) unconsolidated sediments, including sand, gravel, and cobble. Biogenic cover (e.g., kelp, coralline algae, and sediment) explained much of the variability in megabenthic invertebrate community structure. The kelp species Alaria esculenta, Saccharina latissima, and Laminaria solidungula dominated the boulder habitat outside of the fjord covering 35%, 13%, and 11% of the sea floor, respectively. In contrast, the middle and inner portions of the fjord were devoid of kelp and dominated by encrusting coralline algae. More diverse megabenthic invertebrate assemblages were detected within the fjord compared to the periphery. Fish assemblages were depauperate overall with the shorthorn sculpin, Myoxocephalus scorpius, and the Greenland cod, Gadus ogac, dominating total fish biomass contributing 64% and 30%, respectively. Understanding the composition and environmental influences within this fjord ecosystem not only contributes towards the protection of this ecological and culturally important region but serves as a baseline in a rapidly changing climatic region.

Microplastics Distribution within Western Arctic Seawater and Sea Ice.

Microplastic pollution has emerged as a global environmental concern, exhibiting wide distribution within marine ecosystems, including the Arctic Ocean. Limited Arctic microplastic data exist from beached plastics, seabed sediments, floating plastics, and sea ice. However, no studies have examined microplastics in the sea ice of the Canadian Arctic Archipelago and Tallurutiup Imanga National Marine Conservation Area, and few have explored Arctic marginal seas' water column. The majority of the microplastic data originates from the Eurasian Arctic, with limited data available from other regions of the Arctic Ocean. This study presents data from two distinct campaigns in the Canadian Arctic Archipelago and Western Arctic marginal seas in 2019 and 2020. These campaigns involved sampling from different regions and matrices, making direct comparisons inappropriate. The study's primary objective is to provide insights into the spatial and vertical distribution of microplastics. The results reveal elevated microplastic concentrations within the upper 50 m of the water column and significant accumulation in the sea ice, providing evidence to support the designation of sea ice as a microplastic sink. Surface seawater exhibits a gradient of microplastic counts, decreasing from the Chukchi Sea towards the Beaufort Sea. Polyvinyl chloride polymer (~60%) dominated microplastic composition in both sea ice and seawater. This study highlights the need for further investigations in this region to enhance our understanding of microplastic sources, distribution, and transport.

River-influenced beluga (Delphinapterus leucas) summer habitat use in western Hudson Bay, Canada

River estuaries along western Hudson Bay, Canada, are important summer habitats for beluga whales ( Delphinapterus leucus (Pallas, 1776)) and subject to increasing industrial development activities including vessel traffic. The feasibility of establishing a National Marine Conservation Area (NMCA) in western Hudson Bay is under consideration, requiring baseline studies and habitat monitoring. In this study, beluga whale locations were identified using aerial photographs collected during summer 2018 of the Seal, Knife, Churchill, and Nelson River estuaries. Sentinel 2 wavelength bands were used to outline river plume boundaries for the Seal, Knife, and Churchill Rivers. Multiple discriminant analysis was used to differentiate between beluga habitat areas according to their environmental characteristics including concentration of total suspended sediments (TSS), and coloured dissolved organic matter (CDOM). The Seal River estuary, Knife River estuary, Churchill River outer estuary, Churchill River estuary, and Nelson River estuary were identified as distinct habitat areas. Resource selection functions and model selection were used to determine that habitat variables related to prey availability were important for beluga habitat selection, including TSS, CDOM, and the distance to river mouth or river plume. Identification of preferred habitat and habitat areas in this study are imperative for future management decisions including establishment of an NMCA.

Vessel risks to marine wildlife in the Tallurutiup Imanga National Marine Conservation Area and the eastern entrance to the Northwest Passage

The Arctic is changing rapidly due to climate change, which is allowing unprecedented levels of vessel traffic to transit the region. Vessel traffic can negatively affect marine wildlife in a number of ways, particularly in areas where vessels overlap with high concentrations of ecologically important species, and the significance of these impacts are of increased concern when the wildlife are also culturally important. Tallurutiup Imanga National Marine Conservation Area, located in Lancaster Sound, Nunavut, Canada, at the eastern entrance to the Northwest Passage, is experiencing the greatest levels of vessel traffic in the Canadian Arctic, and is important habitat for marine wildlife, including marine mammals and seabirds. Here, we examined the overlap between vessel traffic, including modeled underwater noise levels, and the distribution of two cetacean species, beluga and narwhal, and three seabird species, thick-billed murre, northern fulmar, and black-legged kittiwake. Narwhal had the highest vessel risk in Eclipse Sound and Milne Inlet, all three seabirds had high vessel risk at the eastern entrance to Eclipse Sound, with additional areas for northern fulmar at southern Devon Island and for black-legged kittiwake at Prince Leopold Island, and belugas had the highest vessel risk along southern and eastern Devon Island. Our results provide crucial information for implementing monitoring, conservation, and management initiatives for species inhabiting this protected area, and allow for a better understanding of the potential cultural implications of vessel-based marine wildlife impacts that will affect traditional subsistence hunting and local livelihoods.

Using western science and Inuit knowledge to model ship-source noise exposure for cetaceans (marine mammals) in Tallurutiup Imanga (Lancaster Sound), Nunavut, Canada

Tallurutiup Imanga (TI) is a National Marine Conservation Area (NMCA) established in 2019 at the eastern entrance of the Northwest Passage in Lancaster Sound, Nunavut, Canada, to protect 110,000 square kilometres of core habitat for cetaceans. This study examines the potential impacts of underwater noise from increased ship traffic in TI NMCA on three cetaceans: narwhal, beluga whale, and bowhead whale. Automatic Identification System data from 2015 to 2018 were used to spatially analyse ship traffic in the area. Sound propagation loss was modelled using vessel positions along major routes and then used to model vessel acoustic noise outputs. Areas populated by narwhal, beluga and bowhead whales were identified using western science and Inuit knowledge and then overlapped with the vessel noise outputs. Results indicate that an increasing number of ships are transiting important habitat areas for cetaceans and that this has resulted in some areas where the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Association 120 dB behavioural threshold for marine mammals has been exceeded. This suggests that in some areas of TI NMCA ship noise may negatively impact marine mammal hearing and behaviour, with the highest potential exposures in Eclipse Sound and Milne Inlet.

Experiences With Governance in Three Marine Conservation Zoning Initiatives: Parameters for Assessment and Pathways Forward

IIn this perspective paper, we examine the challenges of governance in three marine conservation settings where rights, access to resources and zoning intersect with changing social and ecological conditions: 1) Tsitsikamma Marine Protected Area in South Africa; 2) Marine Protected Area of the Northern Coast of Sao Paulo (APAMLN) in Brazil and 3) Gwaii Haanas National Marine Conservation Area Reserve in Canada. Many MPAs and related zoning initiatives are located adjacent to coastal communities that rely on marine and coastal resources for their livelihoods. Thus, processes of zoning must often address local use of natural resources which can be perceived by decision-makers and regulators as problematic. Our analysis highlights how conservation zoning intersects with the perception of diverse stakeholders regarding a range of governance dimensions, including: 1) levels of participation and compliance; 2) the clarity of zoning and conservation objectives; 3) livelihood impacts and benefits; 4) evidence of ecological and conservation benefits; and 5) the influence on sense of place. Pathways forward to address the challenges of governance associated with zoning include the importance of co-producing knowledge for more robust zoning outcomes, and situating zoning processes in a co-management context in which power and authority are more evenly distributed.

Species composition and habitat preferences of the nearshore fish fauna of Bonne Bay, Newfoundland

BackgroundDetermining biodiversity baseline is the first step toward establishing species monitoring and conservation programs. In this study we report on a 10-year survey of the fish fauna of Bonne Bay, a fjord surrounded by the Gros Morne National Park on the west coast of Newfoundland, Canada. The objectives of our study were: 1) to determine the fish fauna of Bonne Bay using standardized sampling methods; 2) to gather information on the habitats of fishes of conservation concern; and 3) to provide baseline information on Bonne Bay as a potential candidate for a National Marine Conservation Area (NMCA).MethodsA survey of the fish fauna of the inner Bonne Bay was conducted each summer from 2002 to 2011 at multiple sites representing a range of fish habitats within the fjord. Sampling gears included two types of beach seine, gillnets with various mesh sizes and a bottom trawl. Species composition was statistically compared across sites within the fjord.ResultsWe collected and identified 29 fish species from 17 families. Fish assemblages comprised anadromous, estuarine, and marine fish species, including a late-maturing type of winter skate (Leucoraja ocellata) that is rarely found in the adjacent waters of the northern Gulf of St. Lawrence. Similarity in species composition across sites reflected salinity, substrate composition, and presence of eelgrass (Zostera marina), but not the geographic distance between sites.ConclusionsBonne Bay’s adjacency to a United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) World Heritage Site, its diverse fish fauna that includes several species of conservation concern, its potential for education and enjoyment, and its stewardship by local people are suggestive of the future candidacy as a NMCA. The data presented here will help managers assess the potential of Bonne Bay as a National Marine Conservation Area.

The importance of beliefs in predicting support for a South Coast National Marine Conservation Area in Newfoundland and Labrador, Canada

Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) frequently fall short of their stated goals as marine conservation tools due to various regulatory, physical, sociocultural, and economic reasons. MPA designation, however, continues to be used for perceived conservation and socioeconomic benefits for adjacent communities. Local beliefs regarding ecological and socio-economic outcomes often influence the public support for MPAs and ultimately their effectiveness. This paper focuses on understanding local residents' beliefs regarding a potential South Coast National Marine Conservation Area (NMCA) in Newfoundland and Labrador and how those beliefs influence resident support for the NMCA. Data were collected from 180 Burgeo residents through a household survey. While 33% supported the designation of a South Coast NMCA, 43% opposed it and 26% were unsure. A principal component analysis (PCA) extracted five belief constructs. A regression model was used to examine relationships between these constructs and support for a South Coast NMCA. The results indicate that perceived economic development and marine conservation were the best predictors of support for NMCA establishment. Qualitative data analysis supported these findings and was used to better understand these relationships, with a minority of respondents seeing economic opportunities and protection and conservation as causes for support of the proposal. Qualitative responses also revealed strong concerns about the loss of traditional and current means of livelihood. If a South Coast NMCA is to be considered feasible it will require greater support and a shift in resident beliefs. This will require effective stakeholder engagement and increased educational and information campaigns.

Evaluation of WorldView-2 and acoustic remote sensing for mapping benthic habitats in temperate coastal Pacific waters

Maps of nearshore marine habitat are fundamental tools for the management and conservation of coastal ecosystems. While traditional field mapping techniques, such as towed video and diver surveys, are still commonly employed for generating highly detailed maps of seafloor habitat, acoustic and satellite remote sensing have proven to be efficient alternatives for generating habitat maps. To date remote sensing using satellite imagery has dominated mapping efforts over coral reefs and other tropical ecosystems with fewer studies applied in temperate marine regions where acoustic studies are more common. Few studies exist that have assessed the performance of high resolution satellite imagery in mapping seafloor habitat in temperate regions. This paper compares the efficacy of high resolution satellite imagery (WorldView-2) and a single-beam acoustic ground discrimination system (QTC View V) for mapping the distribution of submerged aquatic vegetation at a site within the Gwaii Haanas National Marine Conservation Area (GHNMCA) off the north coast of British Columbia, Canada. Ground-truth data for training and validation were collected using a towed underwater video camera. Prior to classification the WorldView-2 image (8 bands, 2m resolution) was processed following orthorectification, atmospheric correction, glint correction, land and optically deep water masking. An acoustic survey was conducted using a 200kHz echosounder and data were processed and interpolated using QTC IMPACT software. The WorldView-2 imagery performed best in mapping habitat in regions shallower than 3m, obtaining a total accuracy 75%, where it could identify the distribution of green algae (Ulva spp.), brown algae (Fucus spp.) and eelgrass (Zostera marina). The 200kHz data were unable to detect the distribution of brown and green algae but were able to map the distribution of eelgrass as well as a subtidal red algae (Chondrocanthus exasperatus) (total accuracy 80%). A final habitat map containing all habitat types present at the study site was produced using the output from both datasets. The study resulted in recommendations for remote mapping of submerged vegetation in temperate coastal area.

The Black Oystercatcher as a Sentinel Species in the Recovery of the Northern Abalone

Abstract. We documented the diet of the Black Oystercatcher (Haematopus bachmani) on Haida Gwaii, British Columbia, Canada, (2004–2010) with prey remains from 99 territories in Gwaii Haanas National Park Reserve, National Marine Conservation Area Reserve and Haida Heritage Site. The ranking of its four main prey types did not vary annually. Numerically, the prey comprised 50–75% limpets, 14–34% mussels, 8–18% chitons, 1–2% Northern Abalone (Haliotis kamtschatkana), and <1% other species. In 2009, we estimated prey availability and prey preference by Ivlev's electivity index. Northern Abalone, limpets, and chitons were highly preferred; mussels, turban snails, and barnacles were taken in proportion to their occurrence or avoided. Black Oystercatchers preferred abalone of 50 mm, smaller than the mean size available, in contrast to the selection of larger-than-average prey, typical for other prey species. In 2010, 52% of nesting territories sampled contained remains of Northern Abalone, despite that species'...

Local Expectations for Future Marine Protected Area Performance: A Case Study of the Proposed National Marine Conservation Area in the Southern Strait of Georgia, Canada

National marine conservation areas (NMCA) are a type of marine protected area designated and managed by Parks Canada. Before establishment, the agency undertakes a feasibility study involving public feedback on the proposal, however there is no systematic analysis done on this feedback. This article provides such analysis for a proposed NMCA in southern British Columbia using the World Commission on Protected Areas (WCPA) management evaluation effectiveness framework to determine potential performance indicators identified by the public. This data source was supplemented by a survey questionnaire distributed to the main groups invited to the feasibility workshops. Performance indicators were identified for all stages of the management cycle; however, most expected performance indicators fell into NMCA outcomes and planning performance. The most frequently expected outcomes are biophysical ones with reduced water pollution being the most frequently cited. Other often cited outcomes are an increase in fish resources and marine mammals. Ironically all these outcomes are very vulnerable to influences outside the boundaries of the NMCA and suggest the need to embed the NMCA in a wider coastal management strategy.

An exploration of Hul’qumi’num Coast Salish peoples’ attitudes towards the establishment of no‐take zones within marine protected areas in the Salish Sea, Canada

The Canadian Government has committed to establishing a national network of Marine Protected Areas. Progress in the Salish Sea (Strait of Georgia) of British Columbia has been slow. Opposition by First Nations is a factor as these protected areas have the potential to impact on Aboriginal rights. This case study with the Hul’qumi’num First Nations examines their approaches to marine conservation and their perspectives on “no‐take zones” as a component of marine conservation. The study used a variety of community engagement procedures including relationship building, hiring of a Hul’qumi’num research assistant, conducting individual interviews, focus groups, and field surveys. Interviews were conducted with 41 participants contacted because of their knowledge and interest in marine resource use. The views reported provide a rich understanding of Hul’qumi’num attitudes, but cannot be generalised to the whole population. There was widespread support for efforts to involve local First Nations communities in the development of management plans for marine resources, and also for recognition of First Nation reliance on marine resources for food, social, and ceremonial needs and for economic development opportunities. The establishment of permanent no‐take zones was met with both opposition and support. The most highly endorsed statement about no‐take zones is one of principle—that they are a violation of Aboriginal rights. However, there was also strong agreement that permanent no‐take zones would help reduce over‐fishing. The National Marine Conservation Area program is in its infancy and it remains to be seen how the “strictly protected” zone of the legislation will be interpreted in relationship to Aboriginal harvesting practices. However it is clear that successful conservation will only occur with Aboriginal consent in many areas and there needs to be greater investment in understanding Aboriginal perspectives on marine conservation.

Stakeholders’ expectations towards a proposed marine protected area: A multi-criteria analysis of MPA performance criteria

In order to enable effective management of marine protected areas (MPAs), desired MPA achievements need to be identified as early as possible for the development of relevant and clear management goals, objectives and conservation targets. As the definition of MPA success is a social construct, the involvement of multiple groups in this process including government agencies, stakeholders, and other interested parties is increasingly advocated. This study investigates diverse groups’ opinions on the performance of a proposed National Marine Conservation Area (NMCA) on the West coast of Canada prior to its establishment. In order to analyse and quantify the importance of MPA performance criteria among multiple stakeholder groups, the Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP) is applied. Findings reveal that marine stakeholder groups have distinct preferences for future MPA performance. Most differences are obvious between user and non-user groups. The study also finds that respondents’ characteristics other than stakeholder groups affiliations influence expectations towards the proposed MPA including livelihood dependency on the marine environment, amount of time spent in the area, and engagement in fishing activities.

Voyages to Kitchi Gami: The Lake Superior National Marine Conservation Area and Regional Tourism Opportunities in Canada's First National Marine Conservation Area

With a substantial amount of natural (e.g., islands, estuaries, shoals) and cultural (e.g., pictographs, lighthouses, shipwrecks) heritage, the Lake Superior National Marine Conservation Area (LSNMCA), located in Northwestern Ontario, is a protected area steeped in history. Apart from a few exceptions, this region of Ontario has lacked the opportunity to capitalize on potential tourism and recreational opportunities. An historic overview of the region highlights past tourism achievements, such as brook trout fishing in the Nipigon River, and the Rossport Fish Derby, and indicates new tourism opportunities in Northwestern Ontario (e.g., sailing regattas and kayak symposia). The significance of tourism in a region largely dependent upon mining and forestry is also highlighted. The article then reviews the potential role of the LSNMCA in regional tourism development by utilizing Kelleher's levels of stakeholder engagement framework. Although stakeholder involvement in the LSNMCA, according to Kelleher's model, requires further work, the establishment of this protected area (the very first of its kind in Canada) appears to be engaging stakeholders in regional tourism development.

The alphabet soup that protects cold-water corals in the North Atlantic

Canada, the European Union, and the United States, amongst others, recognize the importance of habitat-forming biota such as cold-water corals to a host of associated ecologically and/or commercially important species including fish, crustaceans, and mollusks. These species and the ecological services they provide are important to the peoples surrounding the North Atlantic (i.e. the Atlantic Ocean north of the equator). There are several different legal and/or regulatory tools available to ensure that cold-water corals in the North Atlantic are protected along with the ecological services they provide. Through such tools, many protected areas have been designated or are under consideration in the North Atlantic to protect cold-water coral habitats. Although the designation and labeling varies, e.g. National Marine Conservation Area (Canada), Special Area of Conservation (European Union), or Habitat Area of Particular Concern (USA), all of these designations aim to provide protection into the future to vulnerable habitats like cold-water corals.

Offshore Flight of Buffleheads, &lt;em&gt;Bucephala albeola&lt;/em&gt;, After Twilight in Winter: An Anti-Predation Tactic?

In winter, on Vancouver Island, Buffleheads depart from coastal marine feeding habitat shortly after the onset of civil twilight. This precisely-timed phenomenon may have evolved in response to predation pressure from Peregrine Falcons, Falco peregrinus. The dual habitat requirements of Buffleheads in Shoal Harbour Migratory Bird Sanctuary (1931) and Sidney Channel Important Bird Area are to be included within the proposed Gulf Islands National Marine Conservation Area.

Oceanographic connectivity among marine protected areas on the north coast of British Columbia, Canada

The main objective of our study was to use a three-dimensional oceanographic simulation model to understand connectivity among the proposed Gwaii Haanas National Marine Conservation Area (GHNMCA) and 10 other proposed or existing marine protected areas (MPAs) on the north Pacific coast of Canada. The simulations were conducted using passive particles placed at three depths and vertically migrating particles for 30 or 90 days in late winter. Simulated surface particle dispersion was found to be consistent with winter ocean current observations made from analysis of satellite imagery, current mooring, and drifter data. The GHNMCA would contribute to a network of MPAs because it supplies and receives particles from other MPAs in northern British Columbia. Model simulations also indicate that the greatest source of particles to GHNMCA originate from 30-m and not 2-m flows. Finally, the simulated mean daily dispersal rate of 2.0 km·day–1 would allow fish and invertebrates to self-seed northern portions of the GHNMCA in winter. Together, the GHNMCA and other MPAs appear to contribute a large percentage of particles to non-MPA regions in northern Hecate Strait, which may be considered a particle sink in winter.

Twenty years of satellite observations describing phytoplankton blooms in seas adjacent to Gwaii Haanas National Park Reserve, Canada

Visible satellite imagery is used to estimate the variability of chlorophyll concentration and "brightness" events in surface waters within and adjacent to the proposed National Marine Conservation Area associated with the Gwaii Haanas National Park Reserve and Haida Heritage Site in northern British Columbia, Canada. We examine ocean colour imagery from the coastal zone colour scanner (CZCS; 1979–1985) and sea-viewing wide field-of-view sensor (SeaWiFS; 1998–2000) and visible imagery from the advanced very high resolution radiometer (AVHRR; 1982–2000) to document variability in these parameters because few ship-based observations of phytoplankton exist for this region. The AVHRR imagery indicates that large bright surface patches occur in most summers on the east coast but not the west coast of the Gwaii Haanas National Marine Conservation Area (GHNMCA). The bright patches originate from three main sources: Dogfish Bank to the north, Queen Charlotte Sound to the south, and within the GHNMCA. The ocean colour data reveal large potential interannual variations in satellite-derived chlorophyll for three regions in the GHNMCA and indicate that the Hecate region typically has the highest estimated chlorophyll. Seasonally, all three regions show a bimodal pattern in chlorophyll concentrations, with a spring peak in April–May and a second peak in August–September. At present, few field samples exist to verify the phytoplankton species or seasonal trends in chlorophyll identified by satellite sensors.