National Longitudinal Survey Of Children Research Articles

Province-Level Income Inequality and Health Outcomes in Canadian Adolescents

To examine the effects of provincial income inequality (disparity between rich and poor), independent of provincial income and family socioeconomic status, on multiple adolescent health outcomes. Participants (aged 12-17 years; N = 11,899) were from the Canadian National Longitudinal Survey of Children and Youth. Parental education, household income, province income inequality, and province mean income were measured. Health outcomes were measured across a number of domains, including self-rated health, mental health, health behaviors, substance use behaviors, and physical health. Income inequality was associated with injuries, general physical symptoms, and limiting conditions, but not associated with most adolescent health outcomes and behaviors. Income inequality had a moderating effect on family socioeconomic status for limiting conditions, hyperactivity/inattention, and conduct problems, but not for other outcomes. Province-level income inequality was associated with some physical and mental health outcomes in adolescents, which has research and policy implications for this age-group.

Factors predicting depression across multiple domains in a national longitudinal sample of Canadian youth.

This prospective longitudinal study aimed to investigate the strength and relative importance of multiple predictors of depression in youth aged 16 to 20 years. Data were drawn from Statistics Canada’s National Longitudinal Survey of Children and Youth (Statistics Canada 2007a, b). Hierarchical regressions were conducted separately by child gender (N = 796 boys; N = 919 girls) for two overlapping samples: mixed parent–child dyads (e.g., biological mothers, fathers and other caregivers; N = 1,715) and a subsample containing only biological mother-child dyads (N = 1,425). Parent-reported data were used from Cycle 1 when the children were aged 4 to 8 years. Parent and child-reported data were used from Cycle 4 when children were aged 10 to 14 years. The outcome measure of depressive symptoms was taken from Cycle 7 when the youth were aged 16 to 20 years. Adolescents reported more depression symptoms than young adults and girls reported more than boys. For boys, higher anxiety/depression scores at ages 4 to 8 years and 10 to 14 years, along with lower self-esteem at 10 to 14 years, predicted higher depression scores. Girls’ depression was predicted by loss of a parent by ages 4 to 8 years and higher self-reported anxiety/depression and aggression at ages 10 to 14 years. Among biological mother-child dyads, maternal depression reported by mother when child was aged 4 to 8 years and 10 to 14 years significantly predicted depression for girls. At 10 to 14 years, child-reported lower parental monitoring (girls only) and greater parental rejection (boys and girls) predicted depression at ages 16 to 20 years.

Social Networks as a Coping Strategy for Food Insecurity and Hunger for Young Aboriginal and Canadian Children

Traditional foods and food sharing are important components of Aboriginal culture, helping to create, maintain, and reinforce social bonds. However, limitations in food access and availability may have contributed to food insecurity among Aboriginal people. The present article takes a closer examination of coping strategies among food insecure households in urban and rural settings in Canada. This includes a comparative analysis of the role of social networks, institutional resources, and diet modifications as strategies to compensate for parent-reported child hunger using national sources of data including the Aboriginal Children’s Survey and the National Longitudinal Survey of Children and Youth. Descriptive statistical analyses revealed that a majority of food insecure urban and rural Inuit, Métis, and off-reserve First Nations children and rural Canadian children coped with hunger through social support, while a majority of urban food insecure Canadian children coped with hunger through a reduction in food consumption. Seeking institutional assistance was not a common means of dealing with child hunger, though there were significant urban-rural differences. Food sharing practices, in particular, may be a sustainable reported mechanism for coping with hunger as such practices tend to be rooted in cultural and social customs among Aboriginal and rural populations.

Mild prematurity, proximal social processes, and development.

To elucidate the role of gestational age in determining the risk of poor developmental outcomes among children born late preterm (34-36 weeks) and early term (37-38 weeks) versus full term (39-41 weeks) by examining the contribution of gestational age to these outcomes in the context of proximal social processes. This was an analysis of the Canadian National Longitudinal Survey of Children and Youth. Developmental outcomes were examined at 2 to 3 (N= 15099) and 4 to 5 years (N= 12302). The sample included singletons, delivered at 34 to 41 weeks, whose respondents were their biological mothers. Multivariable modified Poisson regression was used to directly estimate adjusted relative risks (aRRs). We assessed the role of parenting by using moderation analyses. In unadjusted analyses, children born late preterm appeared to have greater risk for developmental delay (relative risk = 1.26; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.01 to 1.56) versus full term. In adjusted analyses, results were nonsignificant at 2 to 3 years (late preterm aRR = 1.13; 95% CI, 0.90 to 1.42; early term aRR = 1.11; 95% CI, 0.96 to 1.27) and 4 to 5 years (late preterm aRR = 1.06; 95% CI, 0.79 to 1.43; early term aRR = 1.03; 95% CI, 0.85 to 1.25). Parenting did not modify the effect of gestational age but was a strong predictor of poor developmental outcomes. Our findings show that, closer to full term, social factors (not gestational age) may be the most important influences on development.

Temperament as a moderator of the effects of parenting on children's behavior.

This study examined the role of child temperament as moderator of the effect of parenting style on children's externalizing and internalizing behaviors. A series of structural equation models were fit to a representative sample of 2,631 Canadian children from the National Longitudinal Survey of Children and Youth. In addition to testing for the presence of Temperament × Parenting interactions, these models also examined the direct and indirect effects of a number of additional contextual factors such as neighborhood problems, neighborhood cohesion, social support, and maternal depression. The results indicate that exposure to more positive parenting reduces behavior problems in children with difficult/unadaptable temperaments. No moderating effects of temperament on hostile parenting were found. Such results serve to highlight the pivotal role of positive features of the rearing environment as catalysts for the successful adaptation of children with difficult/unadaptable temperaments. The results of this modeling work also serve to emphasize the importance of considering the ways in which more distal factors can affect children's behavioral adaptation by contributing to changes in proximal family processes.

Epilepsy, comorbid conditions in Canadian children: Analysis of cross-sectional data from Cycle 3 of the National Longitudinal Study of Children and Youth

PurposeThe purpose of this study was to analyze national survey data to provide estimates of prevalence of epilepsy and associated developmental disabilities and comorbid conditions. MethodsWe analyzed data from Cycle 3 of Canada's National Longitudinal Survey of Children and Youth. The NLSCY captured, socio-demographic information, as well as age, sex, education, ethnicity, household income, chronic health related conditions from birth to 15 years old. The main survey question intended to identify “epilepsy”, “cerebral palsy”, “intellectual disability”, “learning disability”, and “emotional and nervous difficulties” in the population of children surveyed. Prevalence was based on the national cross-sectional sample and used 1000 bootstrap weights to account for survey design factors. ResultsCycle 3 of the NLSCY had the largest number of patients with diagnosed epilepsy. Prevalence figures (n/1000) for epilepsy and cerebral palsy (EPI_CP), epilepsy and intellectual disability (EPI_ID), epilepsy and learning disability (EPI_LD), and epilepsy and emotional nervous difficulties (EPI_EMO_NERV) were 1.1, 1.17, 2.58 and 1.34 respectively. Amongst children with epilepsy, 43.17% reported the presence of one or more of the above comorbid conditions. ConclusionThese results provide an initial prevalence estimate of comorbid conditions with epilepsy in Canadian children. In a high proportion of children with epilepsy, the PMK had reported at least one comorbid disorder. These findings carry implications for health care utilization and long-term outcomes. We discuss methodological aspects related to the ascertainment of epilepsy in both surveys, and to the validity and implications of our findings.

The impact of chronic physical illness, maternal depressive symptoms, family functioning, and self-esteem on symptoms of anxiety and depression in children.

The present study extends earlier research identifying an increased risk of anxiety among children with chronic physical illness (CwCPI) by examining a more complete model that explains how physical illness leads to increased symptoms of anxiety and depression. We tested a stress-generation model linking chronic physical illness to symptoms of anxiety and depression in a population-based sample of children aged 10 to 15 years. We hypothesized that having a chronic physical illness would be associated with more symptoms of anxiety and depression, increased levels of maternal depressive symptoms, more family dysfunction, and lower self-esteem; and, that maternal depressive symptoms, family dysfunction, and child self-esteem would mediate the influence of chronic physical illness on symptoms of anxiety and depression. Data came from the National Longitudinal Survey of Children and Youth (N = 10,646). Mediating processes were analyzed using latent growth curve modeling. Childhood chronic physical illness was associated with increases in symptoms of anxiety and depression, β = 0.20, p < 0.001. Mediating effects were also observed such that chronic physical illness resulted in increases in symptoms of maternal depression and family dysfunction, leading to declines in child self-esteem, and in turn, increases in symptoms of anxiety and depression. CwCPI are at-risk for symptoms of anxiety and depression. Some of this elevated risk appears to work through family processes and child self-esteem. This study supports the use of family-centered care approaches among CwCPI to minimize burden on families and promote healthy psychological development for children.

Is all bullying the same?

BackgroundWe ask whether verbal abuse, threats of violence and physical assault among Canadian youth have the same determinants and whether these determinants are the same for boys and girls. If these are different, the catch-all term “bullying” may mis-specify analysis of what are really different types of behavior.MethodsWe analyze five cohorts of Canadian youth aged 12-15 from the National Longitudinal Survey of Children and Youth (NLSCY). There are 11475 observations in total. Pearson’s correlation coefficients and six different multivariate strategies are used.ResultsThere are many faces to bullying, in terms of its form and relative frequencies for boys versus girls. Although some characteristics of an adolescent are strong predictors of being subject to more than one type of bullying, some other characteristics are only correlated with specific types of bullying.ConclusionsThe many faces of bullying, and their correlation with different factors, imply different policy interventions may be needed to address each issue effectively.

The Prince and the Pauper: Movement of Children up and down the Canadian Income Distribution

This paper uses longitudinal microdata from the Statistics Canada National Longitudinal Survey of Children and Youth (NLSCY) to study the family income dynamics of Canadian children from the time they are 4 or 5 until they are 14 or 15. Dynamics of family income have been studied less often than dynamics of child poverty. Yet we argue that from the perspective of equity, it is important to know the extent to which some children are always affluent while other children are always poor. Also, since our social safety net is designed to shelter Canadians, including children, from both economic hardship and economic loss, it is also important, from the perspective of policy, to assess risk factors for persistent low income as well as correlates of major economic loss.

Child health and parental paid work

We ask how the paid work of Canadian married mothers and fathers is affected when a child has a physical/mental condition or health problem that leads to restrictions in daily activities. Using the Statistics Canada National Longitudinal Survey of Children and Youth, we find that married mothers of children with disabilities are less likely to engage in paid work and/or work fewer paid hours per week. No statistically significant changes in paid work participation or hours are apparent for fathers of the same children. We find, moreover, evidence that the degree of specialization within families increases when there is a child with a disability. These responses are consistent with traditional gender roles within families, and may make sense as a ‘household’ coping strategy. However, such a division of labor may generate economic vulnerability for mothers compared to fathers.

Psychosocial functioning in children with neurodevelopmental disorders and externalizing behavior problems

Purpose: This study examines psychosocial functioning in children with neurodevelopmental disorders (NDDs) and/or externalizing behavior problems (EBPs) as compared to children with neither condition. Methods: The longitudinal sample, drawn from the Canadian National Longitudinal Survey of Children and Youth, included children who were 6 to 9 years old in Cycle 1 who were followed-up biennially in Cycles 2 and 3 (N = 3476). The associations between NDDs and/or EBPs, child and family socio-demographic characteristics and parenting behaviors (consistency and ineffective parenting), were examined across several measures of child psychosocial functioning: peer relationships, general self-esteem, prosocial behavior and anxiety-emotional problems. Results: Children with NDDs, EBPs, and both NDDs and EBPs self-reported lower scores on general self-esteem. Children with NDDs and both NDDs and EBPs reported lower scores on peer relationships and prosocial behavior. Lastly, children with both NDDs and EBPs self-reported higher scores on anxiety-emotional behaviors. After considering family socio-demographic characteristics and parenting behaviors, these differences remained statistically significant only for children with both NDDs and EBPs. Child age and gender, household income and parenting behaviors were important in explaining these associations. Conclusions: Psychosocial functioning differs for children with NDDs and/or EBPs. Children with both NDDs and EBPs appear to report poorer psychosocial functioning compared to their peers with neither condition. However, it is important to consider the context of socio-demographic characteristics, parenting behaviors and their interactions to understand differences in children’s psychosocial functioning.Implication for Rehabilitation:Practitioners may wish to consider complexity in child health by examining a comprehensive set of determinants of psychosocial outcomes as well as comorbid conditions, such as neurodevelopmental disorders (NDDs) and externalizing behavior problems (EBPs).Other health care professionals working with children with NDDs and/or EBPs may wish to consider several child characteristics together, not just the child’s health conditions but also child sex and age.Developing specific intervention programs that improve the psychosocial functioning of children with complex health problems appears to be warranted.

Canadian portrait of changes in family structure and preschool children’s behavioral outcomes

Whereas US-based data have contributed to our understanding of family composition changes over the last decades, data on Canadian families are limited, and previous studies have stressed the need for in depth, longitudinal investigations. This article begins to fill this gap in the literature by providing a current and detailed portrait of family composition changes from 1996 to 2008 (Study 1). Additionally, we performed an analysis of the role of specific child, parent and family characteristics, in interaction with family composition and family transition, in predicting pre-school children’s behavioral outcomes (Study 2). Using nationally-representative Canadian data collected from the National Longitudinal Survey of Children and Youth (NLSCY), we focus our inquiry on a mean sample for 0–5-year-olds of 2,866 children at cycle 8 (2008). Results show increases in non-traditional family households over time, as well as significant relationships between child characteristics, household characteristics, and family processes in predicting three behavioral outcomes: emotional problems, hyperactivity/impulsivity, and physical aggression.

Developmental association of prosocial behaviour with aggression, anxiety and depression from infancy to preadolescence.

Research on associations between children's prosocial behaviour and mental health has provided mixed evidence. The present study sought to describe and predict the joint development of prosocial behaviour with externalizing and internalizing problems (physical aggression, anxiety and depression) from 2 to 11 years of age. Data were drawn from the National Longitudinal Survey of Children and Youth (NLSCY). Biennial prosocial behaviour, physical aggression, anxiety and depression maternal ratings were sought for 10,700 children aged 0 to 9 years at the first assessment point. While a negative association was observed between prosociality and physical aggression, more complex associations emerged with internalizing problems. Being a boy decreased the likelihood of membership in the high prosocial trajectory. Maternal depression increased the likelihood of moderate aggression, but also of joint high prosociality/low aggression. Low family income predicted the joint development of high prosociality with high physical aggression and high depression. Individual differences exist in the association of prosocial behaviour with mental health. While high prosociality tends to co-occur with low levels of mental health problems, high prosociality and internalizing/externalizing problems can co-occur in subgroups of children. Child, mother and family characteristics are predictive of individual differences in prosocial behaviour and mental health development. Mechanisms underlying these associations warrant future investigations.

Abstract MP34: In Praise of Demanding Parenting: The Effects of Parenting Style and Poverty on Obesity Risk in Children: Evidence from a Nationally Representative Sample

Background: One-quarter of children are already overweight or obese when they enter preschool, underscoring a critical need to improve our understanding of childhood determinants of health, including both sociodemographic (such as poverty) and social-familial influences (such as parenting style), as well as how these determinants may interact with one another. Objective: To examine the effects of parenting style on the risk of obesity in youth and determine if poverty is a mediator or moderator for this association. Methods: Participants (age 0-11) were from the National Longitudinal Survey of Children and Youth (NLSCY), a representative cross-sectional survey of youth collected bi-annually (1994-2008) throughout Canada. Factor analysis identified 4 parenting styles consistent with Baumrind’s theory of authoritative (demanding and responsive), authoritarian (demanding but not responsive), permissive (responsive but not demanding), and negligent (not demanding and not responsive) parenting control prototypes. Multivariable logistic regression assessed the risk of a child being obese (BMI percentile ≥ 97.7 th compared to age- and sex-specific WHO growth curves) based on parenting style after adjusting for age, sex, parental education, immigration status, family functioning score, birth order, and maternal age. Analyses were stratified by age (younger: 2-5 years of age, n=19,026; school-age: 6-11 years of age, n=18,551) due to age-related differences in parenting styles. Mediation or moderation by poverty (household income &lt; low income cut-offs adjusted for household size and geographic region) was assessed. Analyses used sampling and bootstrap weights. Results: Younger children’s parents were primarily authoritative (42%, n=7357), followed by negligent (22%, n=3763), permissive (20%, n=3436), and authoritarian (16%, n=4470). Parenting styles in school-age children were similar (authoritative: 32%, n=7195, negligent: 31%, n=5586, permissive: 22%, n=3850, authoritarian: 15%, n=1920). In multivariable analyses, compared to authoritative parenting, younger and school-age children with authoritarian parents were 30% (95% CI: 1.1-1.5, p=0.0002) and 37% (CI: 1.1-1.7, p=0.006) more likely to be obese, respectively. In younger children, poverty moderated this association: authoritarian and negligent parenting was associated with 39% (CI: 1.2-1.6, p&lt;0.0001) and 28% (CI: 1.1-1.5, p=0.002) increased risk of obesity, respectively, only among the children not living in poverty. In school-age children, poverty was not a mediator or moderator. Conclusions: Parenting style is associated with a child’s risk of obesity but is moderated by poverty in younger children. Successful strategies to combat childhood obesity need to reflect the independent and interactive effects of sociodemographic and social-familial influences on health especially in early childhood.

Epilepsy, school readiness in Canadian children: Data from the National Longitudinal Study of Children and Youth (NLSCY)

PurposeUtilizing data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Children and Youth (NLSCY) we evaluated the association between childhood epilepsy and health impairments on measures of school readiness employed in the survey. MethodsStandard scores on the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test-Revised (PPVT-R) were employed in a regression analysis to compare scores in children with and without epilepsy. We also examined the effect of impairments in any of the 8 domains of the Health Utilities index (HUI) on test scores. ResultsA total sample size of 39,130 children (20,044 males, and 19,086 female were included in the analysis, 33,560 children were administered the PPVT-R at a mean age of 4.5 years. There were 70 children with epilepsy, 21 had a score of 1 on the HUI, 21 were assessed to have a HUI<1 (signifying health impairments in one or more of the 8 domains). In the remainder, the PPVT scores were missing. Using the Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) regression for continuous outcomes model for PPVT-R scores as the outcome variable, females scored 1.1 points higher (β=1.1, 95%CI 0.755, 1.444, p=0.000), children without epilepsy and HUI score of <1 scored 3.84 points lower (β=−3.843 95%CI −4.232, −3.452, p=0.000). Children with epilepsy and a HUI score of 1 scored 9.90 points lower (β=−9.902, 95%CI −16.343, −3.461, p=0.003) while those with epilepsy and HUI<1 scored 17.30 lower (β=−17.308, 95%CI −23.776, −10.839, p=0.000). ConclusionThe data provide objective evidence that children with epilepsy are at risk of scholastic underachievement at school entry, while those with additional health impairments as measured by the HUI are at greater risk of underachievement.

Contributions of temperament and parenting in the development of trait emotional intelligence

The inclusion of several trait-EI variables in the last four cycles of the Canadian National Longitudinal Survey of Children and Youth (NLSCY) presents a unique opportunity to test the role of temperament and parenting practices in the development of trait EI. The stratified population survey of over 22,000 Canadian children has been followed by Statistics Canada biannually over the past 14 years. This paper reports on a subsample of children who were 2–3 years old at Cycle 1 (caregivers completed measures of parenting practices and the child’s temperament) and completed a brief version of the EQi:YV at ages 10–11, 12–13, 14–15, and 16–17 years. Latent growth curve modelling was used to derive the normative developmental trajectory of trait EI and to link the latent-growth parameters (initial level and rate of change) to the early-childhood temperament and parenting variables. Implications of the findings for the trait EI theory will be discussed.

Reciprocal associations between trait emotional intelligence and prosocial tendencies: A multi-wave longitudinal study

Although there is a robust association between trait emotional intelligence (EI) and prosocial behaviours in school-aged youth, the temporal dynamics of this relationship remain unknown. Does confidence in one’s EI abilities facilitate more prosocial behaviours, or do appraisals of past prosocial behaviours contribute to stronger sense of EI competence, or both? The present study tested these hypotheses in a longitudinal cross-lagged panel design spanning a 6-year period from late childhood (age 10–11) to adolescence (age 16–17). Data for the study comprised self-reports of trait EI (four waves) and prosocial tendencies (three waves) for 634 participants in the National Longitudinal Survey of Children and Youth – a biannual population survey of Canadian children. Gender differences and parent-reported prosocial behaviours at the initial wave were also taken into account. Results revealed significant bidirectional relationships between trait EI and prosocial tendencies, carrying important implications for the nature of trait EI and its applications.

Temporal Trends in Social Disparities in Maternal Smoking and Breastfeeding in Canada, 1992–2008

A steady decrease in maternal smoking during pregnancy and a steady increase in breastfeeding rates have been observed in Canada in the past two decades. However, the extent to which all socioeconomic classes have benefited from this progress is unknown. Therefore, this study was undertaken to determine: (1) whether progress achieved benefited the entire population or was limited to specific strata; and (2) whether disparities among strata decreased, stayed the same, or increased over time. We used data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Children and Youth, which enrolled children aged 0-3 years between 1994 and 2008. Data collected at entry was analyzed in a cross-sectional manner. Between birth years 1992-1996 and 2005-2008, smoking during pregnancy decreased from 11.5 % (95 % CI 10.0-13.0 %) to 5.2 % (95 % CI 4.1-6.3 %) among mothers with a college or university degree and from 43.0 % (95 % CI 38.8-47.2 %) to 38.6 % (95 % CI 32.9-44.2 %) among those with less than secondary education. During the same period, the rate of breastfeeding initiation increased from 83.8 % (95 % CI 81.9-85.6 %) to 91.5 % (95 % CI 90.2-92.8 %) among mothers with a college or university degree and from 63.1 % (95 % CI 58.9-67.4 %) to 74.7 % (95 % CI 69.8-79.7 %) among those with less than secondary education. The risks of smoking and of not breastfeeding remained significantly higher in the least educated category than in the most educated throughout the study period, and these associations remained statistically significant after controlling for maternal age. Gaps between the least and the most educated mothers narrowed for breastfeeding but widened for smoking during pregnancy.

EARLY-LIFE PREDICTORS OF INTERNALIZING SYMPTOM TRAJECTORIES IN CANADIAN CHILDREN

Previous research examining the development of anxious and depressive symptoms (i.e., internalizing symptoms) from childhood to adolescence has often assumed that trajectories of these symptoms do not vary across individuals. The purpose of this study was to identify distinct trajectories of internalizing symptoms from childhood to adolescence, and to identify risk factors for membership in these trajectory groups. In particular, we sought to identify risk factors associated with early appearing (i.e., child onset) symptoms versus symptoms that increase in adolescence (i.e., adolescent onset). Drawing on longitudinal data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Children and Youth, latent class growth modeling (LCGM) was used to identify distinct trajectories of internalizing symptoms for 6,337 individuals, from age 4-5 to 14-15. Multinomial regression was used to examine potential early-life risk factors for membership in a particular trajectory group. Five trajectories were identified as follows: "low stable" (68%; reference group), "adolescent onset" (10%), "moderate stable" (12%), "high childhood" (6%), and "high stable" (4%). Membership in the "adolescent onset" group was predicted by child gender (greater odds for girls), stressful life events, hostile parenting, aggression, and hyperactivity. Membership in the "high stable" and "high childhood" trajectory groups (i.e., child-onset) was additionally predicted by maternal depression, family dysfunction, and difficult temperament. Also, several significant gender interactions were observed. Causal mechanisms for child and adolescent depression and anxiety may differ according to time of onset, as well as child gender. Some early factors may put girls at greater risk for internalizing problems than boys.

Next Generation Socioemotional Wealth: Impact of Work on Relational and Psychological Outcomes

Ecological theories of human development suggest that adolescent work has negative socioemotional impact. We refine the existing theory by incorporating work context and argue that working in a family firm, as opposed to a non-family firm, at a young age influences socioemotional wealth positively instead. We test how managerial choices of family businesses owners impact family members by investigating the impact of adolescents working in family firms on the relationship with their parents and their overall psychological well-being. Using weighted regression analysis of 9 years of longitudinal data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Children and Youth (NLSCY), we find that those adolescents who work in their family firms on an ongoing basis report a better relationship with their parents, and better psychological well-being than their counterparts. Results suggest that family managers should encourage their children to work in their family firms.