National Household Sample Survey Research Articles

Years of Healthy Life among Older Adults in Brazil: An Analysis Based on the Global Activity Limitation Indicator, 1998 and 2008

The aim of the study was to calculate life expectancy and Healthy Life Expectancy (HLY) through a Global Activity Limitation Indicator (GALI) proxy among Brazilian older adults according to sex for the years 1998 and 2008. The study was carried out using data from the Brazilian National Household Sample Survey (PNAD) and from Abbreviated Life Tables in 2000 and 2010 from Brazilian Institute of Demographic Geography and Statistics (IBGE) by sex. The activity limitation-free life expectancy was estimate based on the GALI for both sexes using the Sullivan method. The results showed an increase in life expectancy in the period for both sexes. The time of life without activity limitations in 2008 has decreased for men. For women, a reduction in percentage of the time lived without activity limitation has been shown. A small advantage in favor of men compare to women’s health was found. Comparing the two periods, the proportion of years expected to be lived without activity limitation was higher in 1998 than in 2008 and for both sexes. There are still many uncertainties about how the country is actually ageing. Given this context, an effort to maintain constant health monitoring through different indicators such as GALI is essential. At the same time, strengthening local and regional policies, aiming to build solid paths and mechanisms to promote an active and healthy ageing of its population must be a target.

Understanding the Determinants of Poverty in Brazil: A Household Level Analysis

ABSTRACT: This study aims to comprehensively examine the determinants of household poverty in Brazil, placing a specific emphasis on the heads of households as the primary unit of analysis. Household poverty is a critical and multifaceted issue in developing countries, a reality that holds true for Brazil as well. Understanding the intricate web of factors that contribute to household poverty is of paramount importance to policymakers, researchers, and advocates dedicated to poverty alleviation and socioeconomic development. Household poverty remains a persistent challenge in Brazil, with far-reaching social and economic consequences. To address this issue effectively, it is essential to identify the factors that contribute to poverty among households, particularly those led by individuals who are the primary income earners. These households often face unique economic and social challenges that demand targeted interventions. To analyze household poverty determinants, this study utilizes data from the "Pesquisa Nacional por Amostras de Domicílios Contínua" (Continuous National Household Sample Survey) (PNADC). The dataset provides comprehensive information on the individual characteristics of the household head and household-level attributes, offering a nuanced view of the factors at play. A probit model is employed to estimate the probability of a household head experiencing poverty, allowing for a examination of various factors. The research findings reveal several significant determinants of household poverty in Brazil. Firstly, households led by men are found to be less likely to be in a situation of poverty, shedding light on gender-related disparities in income and opportunities. Secondly, households with heads who have attained higher levels of education exhibit a lower probability of being in poverty, underscoring the importance of education as a pathway out of poverty. Moreover, urban households are found to be less prone to poverty compared to their rural counterparts, since households led by individuals who work in agricultural-related activities are more likely to experience poverty. This emphasizes the need for targeted rural development strategies. Additionally, households located in the North and Northeast regions of Brazil face a higher likelihood of poverty, possibly due to regional economic disparities that require specific policy attention. These findings have important policy implications for poverty alleviation efforts in Brazil. Policymakers should consider targeted interventions that focus on improving access to education, particularly in regions with higher poverty rates, as education is a powerful tool for poverty reduction. Efforts to promote gender equality and enhance economic opportunities in rural areas are also essential to address the diverse causes of poverty. Additionally, regional disparities in poverty should be addressed through comprehensive regional development initiatives that take into account the unique challenges faced by different areas of the country. Our results also highlight the importance of community-specific social programs, including conditional-cash transfers and incentives for childhood education, which can play a pivotal role in breaking the cycle of poverty in Brazil's diverse communities.

Informal labor and poverty in the metropolitan region of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

Poverty in Brazil persists as a significant challenge for society, addressing not only fundamental moral concerns but also the need to promote conditions conducive to economic and social development. The complexity of the problem, characterized by multiple factors beyond income, includes historical inequalities, unequal economic structures, and limited access to resources and public services. Despite advancements in recent decades, the increase in poverty between 2014 and 2016, driven by growing income inequality, underscores the fragility of these advances. The rise in poverty rates in the Metropolitan Region of the state of Rio de Janeiro, where affluent areas coexist with deprived communities, becomes a cause for concern, exacerbated by factors such as lack of decent employment, educational precarity and socio-economic impacts of the pandemic. Confronting these issues, a detailed analysis using data from the Continuous National Household Sample Survey (Continuous PNAD) of 2012, 2016 and 2020 highlights the formality of employment as a crucial factor in poverty reduction in the region. The transition from informality to formality is associated with significant gains in poverty reduction, surpassing even the impact of the educational level of the head of the household. Results from Bayesian logistic regression show that formality decreases the likelihood of individuals and their families having per capita household income below the poverty line. This research emphasizes the need for comprehensive public policies in the state of Rio de Janeiro, aiming to promote economic opportunities, improve the quality of education and invest in infrastructure, underscoring the importance of enhancing employment ties as an effective strategy in the fight against poverty.

Sociodemographic inequalities in the incidence of COVID-19 in National Household Sample Survey cohort, Brazil, 2020.

To verify the association between sociodemographic factors and the time until the occurrence of new cases of COVID-19 and positive tests for SARS-CoV-2 in Brazil, during the period from May to November 2020, based on a cohort of Brazilians participating in the COVID-19 National Household Sample Survey. A concurrent and closed cohort was created using monthly data from the PNAD COVID-19, carried out via telephone survey. A new case was defined based on the report of the occurrence of a flu-like syndrome, associated with loss of smell or taste; and positivity was defined based on the report of a positive test, among those who reported having been tested. Cox regression models were applied to verify associations. The analyzes took into account sample weighting, calibrated for age, gender and education distribution. The cumulative incidence of cases in the overall fixed cohort was 2.4%, while that of positive tests in the fixed tested cohort was 27.1%. Higher incidences were observed in the North region, in females, in residents of urban areas and in individuals with black skin color. New positive tests occurred more frequently in individuals with less education and healthcare workers. The importance of prospective national surveys is highlighted, contributing to detailed analyzes of social inequalities in reports focused on public health policies.

Sociodemographic inequalities in the incidence of COVID-19 in National Household Sample Survey cohort, Brazil, 2020

RESUMO Objetivo: Verificar a associação entre fatores sociodemográficos e o tempo até a ocorrência de novos casos de COVID-19 e de testes positivos para Sars-CoV-2 no Brasil, durante o período de maio a novembro de 2020, com base em uma coorte dos brasileiros participantes da Pesquisa Nacional por Amostra de Domicílios COVID-19. Métodos: Foi constituída uma coorte concorrente e fechada utilizando dados mensais da Pnad COVID-19, realizada por inquérito telefônico. Um caso novo foi definido com base no relato da ocorrência de um quadro de síndrome gripal, associado à perda de olfato ou paladar; e a positividade foi definida com base no relato de um teste positivo, entre os que referiram ter sido testados. Foram aplicados modelos de regressão de Cox para verificar associações, considerando a ponderação amostral, calibrada para a distribuição etária, de sexos e de escolaridade. Resultados: A incidência acumulada de casos na coorte fixa geral foi de 2,4%, enquanto a de testes positivos na coorte fixa testada foi de 27,1%. Verificou-se maiores riscos nas regiões Centro-Oeste, Norte e Nordeste, entre mulheres, residentes em áreas urbanas, pessoas com escolaridade até o ensino médio, com a cor da pele declarada como preta e trabalhadores da área da saúde. Indivíduos com menor escolaridade e profissionais de saúde apresentaram maior frequência de novos testes positivos. Novos testes positivos ocorreram com maior frequência em indivíduos com menor escolaridade e trabalhadores da área da saúde. Conclusão: Foram observados riscos desiguais entre os estratos populacionais comparados. Destaca-se a importância da realização de inquéritos nacionais prospectivos na investigação de iniquidades em saúde.

The economic impact of cancer mortality among working-age individuals in Brazil from 2001 to 2030

BackgroundAbout half of cancer deaths in Brazil occur among individuals of working-age (under 65 years for men, under 60 for women), resulting in a substantial economic impact for the country. We aimed to estimate the years of potential productive life lost (YPPLL) and value the productivity lost due to premature deaths from cancer between 2001 and 2015 and the projected to 2030. MethodsWe used the Human Capital Approach to estimate the productivity losses corresponding to YPPLL for cancer deaths in working age people (15–64 years). Mortality data were obtained from the Mortality Information System from 2001 to 2015 and projected between 2016 and 2030. Economic data were obtained from the Continuous National Household Sample Survey and forecasted to 2030. Productivity lost was calculated as the monetary value arising from YPPLL in Int$(2016). ResultsBetween 2001 and 2030, a total of 2.3 million premature deaths from all cancers combined were observed and forecasted in Brazil (57% men, 43% women), corresponding to 32 million YPPLL and Int$141.3 billion in productivity losses (men: Int$102.5 billion, women: Int$38.8 billion). Between 2001 and 2030, among men, lung (Int$ 12.6 billion), stomach (Int$ 10.6 billion) and colorectal (Int$ 9.4 billion) cancers were expected to contribute to the greatest productivity losses; and among women, it will be for breast (Int$ 10.0 billion), cervical (Int$ 6.4 billion) and colorectal (Int$ 3.2 billion) cancers. ConclusionsMany preventable cancers result in high lost productivity, suggesting measure to reduce smoking prevalence, alcohol consumption, physical inactivity and inadequate diet, improving screening programs and increasing vaccination coverage for human papillomavirus and hepatitis B would have a positive impact on the economy, as well as reducing morbidity and mortality from cancer.

Prediction of Multimorbidity in Brazil: Latest Fifth of a Century Population Study.

Multimorbidity is characterized by the co-occurrence of 2 or more chronic diseases and has been a focus of the health care sector and health policy makers due to its severe adverse effects. This paper aims to use the latest 2 decades of national health data in Brazil to analyze the effects of demographic factors and predict the impact of various risk factors on multimorbidity. Data analysis methods include descriptive analysis, logistic regression, and nomogram prediction. The study makes use of a set of national cross-sectional data with a sample size of 877,032. The study used data from 1998, 2003, and 2008 from the Brazilian National Household Sample Survey, and from 2013 and 2019 from the Brazilian National Health Survey. We developed a logistic regression model to assess the influence of risk factors on multimorbidity and predict the influence of the key risk factors in the future, based on the prevalence of multimorbidity in Brazil. Overall, females were 1.7 times more likely to experience multimorbidity than males (odds ratio [OR] 1.72, 95% CI 1.69-1.74). The prevalence of multimorbidity among unemployed individuals was 1.5 times that of employed individuals (OR 1.51, 95% CI 1.49-1.53). Multimorbidity prevalence increased significantly with age. People over 60 years of age were about 20 times more likely to have multiple chronic diseases than those between 18 and 29 years of age (OR 19.6, 95% CI 19.15-20.07). The prevalence of multimorbidity in illiterate individuals was 1.2 times that in literate ones (OR 1.26, 95% CI 1.24-1.28). The subjective well-being of seniors without multimorbidity was 15 times that among people with multimorbidity (OR 15.29, 95% CI 14.97-15.63). Adults with multimorbidity were more than 1.5 times more likely to be hospitalized than those without (OR 1.53, 95% CI 1.50-1.56) and 1.9 times more likely need medical care (OR 1.94, 95% CI 1.91-1.97). These patterns were similar in all 5 cohort studies and remained stable for over 21 years. A nomogram model was used to predict multimorbidity prevalence under the influence of various risk factors. The prediction results were consistent with the effects of logistic regression; older age and poorer participant well-being had the strongest correlation with multimorbidity. Our study shows that multimorbidity prevalence varied little in the past 2 decades but varies widely across social groups. Identifying populations with higher rates of multimorbidity prevalence may improve policy making around multimorbidity prevention and management. The Brazilian government can create public health policies targeting these groups, and provide more medical treatment and health services to support and protect the multimorbidity population.

Prevalence of flu-like syndrome in healthcare workers in Brazil: a national study, 2020.

To evaluate the prevalence of reported symptoms of flu-like syndrome (FS) among HCW and compare HCW and non-HCW on the chance of reporting these symptoms, this study analyzed data of a population-based survey conducted in Brazil. A cross-sectional analysis was performed with self-reported data from the Brazilian National Household Sample Survey (PNAD Covid-19) from May 2020. The authors analyzed a probability sample of 125,179 workers, aged 18 to 65, with monthly income lower than US$ 3 500. The variable HCW or non-HCW was the covariate of interest and having reported FS symptoms or not was the outcome variable. Authors tested interactions of HCW with other covariates. A logit model - when controlling for sociodemographic, employment, and geographic characteristics - investigated the chance of HCW reporting FS compared to non-HCW. HCW have a significant effect (odds ratio of 1.369) on reporting FS symptoms when compared to non-HCW. HCW account for 4.17% of the sample, with a higher frequency of FS (3.38%) than observed for non-HCW (2.43%). Female, non-white and older individuals had higher chance to report FS. The HCW had a higher chance of reporting symptoms than non-HCW aged over 18 years in the labor force. These results emphasize guidelines for preventive measures to reduce workplace exposures in the healthcare facilities. The prevalence is disproportionately affecting HCW women and HCW non-whites. In the regions North and Northeast the steeper progression is consistent with the hypothesis of socioeconomic factors, and it explains the greater prevalence in HCW and non-HCW living in those territories.

Income Inequality of the Brazilian Amazon Population

The main objective of this study is to evaluate the behavior of income distribution in the Amazonian States of Brazil from 2004 to 2015. As complementary objectives, we sought to determine the immediate causes of any differences of Household Income Per Capita (HIPC) distribution in the Legal Amazon, based on the static decomposition of the Gini Index, and to analyze the dynamic decomposition of the Gini Index considering HIPC portions. This methodology used microdata from the National Household Sample Survey (PNAD) for the analyzed period. As a result, the Gini index of the Legal Amazon HIPC performed differently from that of Brazil (without Legal Amazon). The HIPC portion formed by the income of military and civil servants from the Legal Amazon stood out for having the highest degree of negative progressivity when compared to the rest of the country, whereas “government transfers” had the highest degree of positive progressivity, being responsible for 36.7 of the Gini Index variation from 2004 to 2015.

Persistent inequalities in health care services utilisation in Brazil (1998–2019)

BackgroundOne of the primary objectives of the Brazilian health care system is to improve the health and well-being of all citizens. Since the establishment of the Unified Health System/Sistema Único de Saúde (SUS) in 1988, Brazil has made strides towards reducing inequalities in health care services utilisation. However, there are currently no comprehensive and up-to-date studies focused on inequalities in both curative and preventive health care services utilisation.MethodsWe evaluated data from the National Household Sample Survey and the Brazilian National Health Survey, which are two nationally representative studies that include findings from 1998, 2003, and 2008 and 2013 and 2019, respectively. We calculated Erreygers-corrected Concentration Indices (CInds) to evaluate the magnitude of socioeconomic-related inequalities associated with five indicators of health care services utilisation, including physician visits, hospital admissions, surgical procedures, Pap smears, and mammograms. The main factors associated with these inequalities were identified via a decomposition analysis of the calculated CInds.ResultsWhile the results of our analysis revealed persistent inequalities in health care services utilisation that favour the wealthy, we found that the overall magnitude of these inequalities decreased over time. The largest inequalities were observed in the utilisation of preventive care services (Pap smears and mammograms) and services available in the poorest regions of the country. Except for admissions for labour and delivery, our findings revealed that wealthier individuals were more likely to utilise hospital services; this represents a change from findings reported in previous years. Private health insurance coverage and individual socioeconomic status are significantly associated with inequalities in health care services utilisation throughout Brazil.ConclusionsCollectively, our findings suggest that we must continue to monitor potential inequalities in health care service utilisation to determine whether Brazilian policy objectives focused on improved health outcomes for all will ultimately be achieved.

A ponta do iceberg: o teletrabalho durante a pandemia

Abstract The new coronavirus pandemic compulsorily brought work into the homes of thousands of workers worldwide. Therefore, this essay aims to highlight the psychosocial factors of health risks and telework’s panorama in the first year of the COVID-19 pandemic and, in this context, to analyze the telework policy in Brazil. We presented the different concepts of telework and discuss how and why it is not a risk-free modality. The literature highlights psychosocial factors, such as social and professional isolation, work intensification and overlapping of professional and family activities. Secondary data obtained from the National Household Sample Survey and analyses by the Institute of Applied Economic Research during the pandemic revealed a panorama of inequality in the profile of those who have access to telework, in addition to the accentuation of regional differences. Finally, we identified a mismatch between the regulation of telework and the workers’ needs, impacted by the COVID-19 pandemic. Thus, it is necessary to elaborate, reformulate and implement policies, aiming to guarantee the rights and health of teleworkers.

The impact of unemployment insurance on reinsertion wages in 2015 in the rural environment of Brazil

Abstract: This work sought to provide new evidence on the impact of the Brazilian Unemployment Insurance Program (Programa Seguro-Desemprego) on the reinsertion wages of its beneficiaries, considering the Brazilian rural environment. Datafrom the National Household Sample Survey (Pesquisa Nacional por Amostra de Domicílios- PNAD) of 2015 was used, as well as the Sharp model discontinuity regression method. The results showed a positive effect on the reinsertion wages of individuals who participated in the Unemployment Insurance Program in rural Brazil. When disaggregating by Brazilian regions, the Southeast region had a greater positive effect on reinsertion wages, while the Midwest region has a negative effect on workers who participated in the Unemployment Insurance Program. Among the main conclusions, it is a fact that the Unemployment Insurance program had a positive effect for Brazilian formal rural workers residing in the Southeast of the country, but a negative effect for those residing in the Center-West region of Brazil.

Muito jovem ou pobre para casar? Efeito do Programa Bolsa Família sobre o casamento infantil feminino

This article estimates the effects of the Bolsa Família Program (PBF) on the probability of child marriage of its beneficiaries. In particular, we test the hypothesis that the family's financial situation is one of the determinants of the marriage of girls under age of 18. This hypothesis is a result of families' optimization under uncertainty, which we build through a theoretical model. The empirical test uses data from the 2019 Continuous National Household Sample Survey and the Propensity Score Matching method. Our main result is that the PBF reduces the probability of child marriage for girls living in poverty.&nbsp

Unionization and wages: a quantile analysis

The aim of this article is to analyse the wage effects of unionization in a sample of the Brazilian population in 2015. Using data from the National Household Sample Survey (PNAD) and its supplement on labour relations and unionization, econometric techniques (ordinary least squares, propensity score matching and unconditional quantile regressions) are used to test the hypotheses that being unionized affects wages, and whether there is an additional benefit in the case of unions that participate more actively with their members. The results show that there is a positive relationship between unionization and average wages. It was also found that an increase in total unionization seems to reduce the pay of workers at the lower end of the distribution, but raise wages for the majority of the population. In addition, unions that participated in an agreement in the last 365 days generated average gains of 4.3%.

Optimal income crossover for a two-class model using particle swarm optimization.

Personal income distribution may exhibit a two-class structure, such that the lower income class of the population (85-98%) is described by exponential Boltzmann-Gibbs distribution, whereas the upper income class (2-15%) has a Pareto power-law distribution. We propose a method, based on a theoretical and numerical optimization scheme, which allows us to determine the crossover income between the distributions, the temperature of the Boltzmann-Gibbs distribution, and the Pareto index. Using this method, the Brazilian income distribution data provided by the National Household Sample Survey was studied. The data was stratified into two dichotomies (sex/gender and color/race), so the model was tested using different subsets along with accessing the economic differences between these groups. Last, we analyze the temporal evolution of the parameters of our model and the Gini coefficient discussing the implication on the Brazilian income inequality. In this paper, we propose an optimization method to find a continuous two-class income distribution, which is able to delimit the boundaries of the two distributions. It also gives a measure of inequality which is a function that depends only on the Pareto index and the percentage of people in the high-income region. We found a temporal dynamics relation, that may be general, between the Pareto and the percentage of people described by the Pareto tail.

Atenção primária à saúde infantil: a maior avaliação de base populacional da história do SUS

Abstract The IBGE has been playing a leading role in the public policy evaluation in Brazil since 2019. After the National Health Survey (PNS) evaluated primary care services in the Unified Health System (SUS) provided to adults, in 2022, the Continuous National Household Sample Survey (PNAD-C) investigated child health. To this end, it adopted one version of the Primary Care Assessment Tool (PCAT), developed and disseminated by Starfield and Shi to assess the existence and extent of the attributes of PHC services. The target audience surveyed included children under 13 years of age, and the questionnaires were answered by their guardians/caregivers. It included all the 27 federative units of the country in random probabilistic samples, also unfolding in the Brazilian metropolitan regions and capitals. This is the largest household survey on child health assessment ever conducted in Brazil. With the PNS-2019 and the PNAD-C in 2022, IBGE inaugurates its greatest legacy for Brazilian primary health care regarding the evaluation of SUS users, with all federative units recognizing and understanding how Brazilian society evaluates health services at the first level of care.

Primary child health care: the largest population-based assessment in the history of Brazilian National Health System.

The IBGE has been playing a leading role in the public policy evaluation in Brazil since 2019. After the National Health Survey (PNS) evaluated primary care services in the Unified Health System (SUS) provided to adults, in 2022, the Continuous National Household Sample Survey (PNAD-C) investigated child health. To this end, it adopted one version of the Primary Care Assessment Tool (PCAT), developed and disseminated by Starfield and Shi to assess the existence and extent of the attributes of PHC services. The target audience surveyed included children under 13 years of age, and the questionnaires were answered by their guardians/caregivers. It included all the 27 federative units of the country in random probabilistic samples, also unfolding in the Brazilian metropolitan regions and capitals. This is the largest household survey on child health assessment ever conducted in Brazil. With the PNS-2019 and the PNAD-C in 2022, IBGE inaugurates its greatest legacy for Brazilian primary health care regarding the evaluation of SUS users, with all federative units recognizing and understanding how Brazilian society evaluates health services at the first level of care.

Mortality from chronic respiratory disease in Brazil: time trend and forecasts.

ABSTRACTOBJECTIVE To analyze the time trend of monthly mortality rates from chronic respiratory diseases in Brazil from 1996 to 2017, with forecasts for 2022, besides analyzing the possibility of achieving the goal of the Plano de Ações Estratégicas para o Enfrentamento das Doenças Crônicas Não Transmissíveis no Brasil (Strategic Action Plan to Tackle Chronic Noncommunicable Diseases in Brazil) from 2011 to 2022.METHODS This is an ecological study that uses data from Sistema de Informações sobre Mortalidade (SIM – Mortality Information System), Sistema de Informações Demográficas e Socioeconômicas (Demographic and Socioeconomic Information System) and Pesquisa Nacional por Amostra de Domicílios Contínua (PNAD Contínua – Continuous National Household Sample Survey). We established the age range between 30 and 69 years old and the evolution of the rates over time was made by autoregressive integrated moving average models in R statistical tool.RESULTS Premature mortality rates from chronic respiratory diseases are decreasing in Brazil as a whole, mostly in state capitals. There is also a trend to reach the Ministry of Health’s goal in most of the country. For capitals that tend not to reach the goal, there is an association between mortality and social indicators, healthcare network and frequency of smoking.CONCLUSION This study intends to improve planning of the public health system for the control of chronic respiratory diseases.

Decomposing wage differences in Brazilian regions: a revised insight about traditional discrimination

PurposeThis paper analyzes the issue of wage differentials and gender discrimination in the Brazilian labor market.Design/methodology/approachThe methodology is based on the log-linear equation model by Mincer (1974) and the decomposition method by Oaxaca (1973) and Blinder (1973) and was estimated using data from the National Household Sample Survey (PNAD).FindingsThe main results indicate that there was a reduction in wage differentials and gender discrimination in the majority of regions in Brazil for white workers when comparing the available years. However, for non-white workers, the degree of discrimination increased in Brazil, especially in the central-west and southeast regions. Overall, wage decompositions have suggested that women suffer from wage discrimination.Originality/valueThis is the first paper detailing wage discrimination across the different Brazilian regions and also controlling for usual dimensions like gender and race.Peer reviewThe peer review history for this article is available at: https://publons.com/publon/10.1108/IJSE-09-2021-0569.

Physicians' income in Brazil: a study on information sources.

Data on physicians' income are relevant for well-informed health policies, both due to their strategic role and the volume of resources that their activities represent to health systems. In Brazil, multiple sources of data measure the income of these professionals, each one with singularities that generate a complex and heterogeneous picture. This study explores the methodological aspects of different data sources, pointing to potentials and limitations to measuring the income of physicians. We use the sources' documentation and data on the average monthly income in 2019, by gender and macro region, from four distinct surveys: Continuous Pnad (National Household Sample Survey), RAIS (Annual Listing of Social Information), Medical Demographics, and IRPF (Personal Income Tax). The results confirm the heterogeneity of definitions, variables, and methodologies. The data set can evidence phenomena such as the income difference between men and women. Regional inequalities are evident; however, the data interpretation is less assertive. Although eventual gaps and discrepancies among sources can limit some strong conclusions, the analysis of different methodologies employed can suggest relevant hypotheses for in-depth studies.