National Export Research Articles

The Impact of the National Export Strategy on the Plastics and Packaging Industry in Malawi

ABSTRACT: Export-led industrialization is crucial for economic growth, emphasizing the shift from primary production to manufacturing. Malawi aims for industrialization through its National Export Strategy (NES), focusing on oilseed and sugarcane products and manufacturing. However, research gaps exist on export promotion programs’ impact, especially in less developed countries like Malawi and specific sectors like plastics and packaging. A mixed-method approach was employed, combining qualitative and quantitative methods for robust analysis. All 13 firms in Malawi’s plastics and packaging industry were surveyed in Blantyre and Lilongwe to assess the impact of the National Export Strategy (NES). A questionnaire with 37 questions across six sections, adapted from prior research, was used to gather comprehensive data on various aspects such as employment, production, and investment. Ethical clearance was obtained, and completed questionnaires underwent thorough review before data analysis. Results are presented in subsequent sections. The impact of Malawi’s National Export Strategy (NES) on its plastics and packaging industry highlights vital challenges. Employment suffers from a lack of skilled labor, stemming from a mismatch with training institutions. Firms struggle with limited access to finance and high borrowing costs, hindering investment. High taxes and duties hamper export competitiveness, while unreliable energy supply increases operational costs. Additionally, transportation expenses impede raw material imports, exports, and local distribution. These findings underscore the need to address skill mismatches, enhance financial access, reduce trade barriers, and improve infrastructure to bolster the industry’s resilience and competitiveness under the NES. Policy implications include collaborating with financial institutions to enhance access to grants and affordable credit, imposing higher import taxes on finished products to protect local producers, improving energy supply, enhancing transportation infrastructure, introducing incentives for investment in support services, raising awareness of NES benefits, and establishing industry-specific meetings to address sector-specific issues. These measures aim to bolster the plastics and packaging industry’s competitiveness and support its growth under the NES.

The Role of Coffee Trade in Shaping Ethiopia’s Economic Development from the 1960s to Present

This study examines the role of coffee trade in shaping Ethiopia’s economic development from the 1960s to the present. It explores the evolution of Ethiopia’s coffee industry through key policy transformations, market liberalization, and economic reforms, highlighting their impact on national export revenues, foreign exchange reserves, employment creation, and rural economic development. The analysis addresses the challenges faced by Ethiopia’s coffee sector, including climate change, market volatility, and global competition, while also identifying opportunities for growth through sustainability practices, certification, and market diversification. Finally, the study outlines strategic pathways for future development, focusing on enhancing productivity, building resilient supply chains, and aligning coffee trade strategies with broader national development goals.

Export Diversification, Quality and Global Value Chain: A Cross-country Analysis

This paper critically examines the impact of countries’ participation and positions in Global Value Chains (GVCs) on their export diversification and quality for 43 G20 and OECD countries over the period 1990–2015. GMM dynamic panel estimation reveals that deeper GVC integration significantly influences export structures, with countries positioned downstream in the value chain exhibiting more diversified exports (overall and at the intensive margin) but have concentrated exports at the extensive margin and geographically. Conversely, upstream, more factor-based GVC activities tend to result in less diversified export portfolios. Greater GVC participation leads to a more diversified export product basket but more concentrated export destinations in terms of the Hirschman index. However, the association between export diversification and GVC participation varies across measures of diversification and country’s level of economic development. We further find that countries and sectors having larger export share in downstream of the supply chain and have a lower extent of GVC participation, export quality differentiated product. These outcomes suggest that GVC participation and position play crucial roles in shaping national export strategies and economic resilience, with downstream activities offering pathways to enhanced export diversification and quality improvement. The study contributes to the understanding of how global production fragmentation impacts the complexity and sophistication of countries’ export baskets. The outcomes provide guidance for policymakers to strategically leverage GVC engagement to foster export diversification, quality improvement and economic resilience.

Comparative analysis of key factors influencing urban green space in Mashhad, Iran (1988–2018)

This paper analyzed the role of national economic factors, in addition to some key city-level variables, in the variation of the urban green space (UGS) in Mashhad City (Iran) during three decades (1998–2018). The correlation result revealed the effects of the increasing trend of land price, population rate, and construction of built-up areas in the decreasing trend of UGS in the study area (R from − 0.95 to -0.99 at p-value > 95%). Also, the country-level economic factors, i.e., GDP per capita, oil price, export total value, and FDI, represented the overall increasing trend from 1988 to 2018, correlating with the decrease of green space areas (R from − 0.76 to -0.92 at p-value > 75%). Some statistical analyses, such as the run-test, the skewness and kurtosis tests, the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test, and the ANOVA test were done to confirm the normality of the data distribution and reliability of the results. Ultimately, clustering the research variables based on the significance and confidence levels of the estimated correlation results revealed that the change in the oil price and national export values in the petroleum-dependent economy of Iran can be assumed as the lead key economic factors to fluctuate all city-level variables, particularly the UGS variations.

Optimalisasi Potensi Ekspor Produk Gula Jahe Seduh “Berkah” ke Pasar Dunia

The increasingly advanced technology and industry today is the key to export activities. Exports can be the driving force of the global economy by contributing more like economic development, country competitiveness, job creation, and innovation. The National Export School focuses on export learning for UMKM, BUMN, and other companies. The mission of the Export School is to create 500,000 new exporters by 2030. The National Export College is working with Merdeka Campus in a Studi Independen Bersertifikat (SIB) program that focuses on the development of UMKM for export to global markets. Ginger sugar product development has significant export potential for local economic growth, and national economic development. The aim of this dedication is to develop ginger sugar products to the international market by increasing consumer demand, expanding the network, and enhancing the brand. The dedication method is implemented using the results of field surveys with business owners.

THE IMPACT OF THE INCREASE IN THE VOLUME OF FREIGHT TURNOVER ON THE RAILWAYS ON EXPORTS

Purpose: This study aims to investigate the intricate relationship between the volume of exports (Y) and freight turnover on railways (X) through a paired linear regression model. The purpose is to discern the quantitative impact of railway freight turnover on a nation's export volumes and offer insights for policymakers and stakeholders in the transportation and trade sectors. Design/Methodology/Approach: A quantitative research design is employed, utilizing historical data spanning from 2000 to 2022. The chosen methodology involves the estimation of a paired linear regression model using the method of least squares. Statistical significance is tested through the coefficient of determination, Fisher's F-test, and an examination of heteroskedasticity. Elasticity analysis, rank correlation, and graphical assessments of residuals provide a comprehensive understanding of the relationship. Findings: The research reveals a strong and statistically significant positive correlation (r = 0.92) between export volumes and railway freight turnover. The regression model, validated through multiple tests, explains 84.72% of the variability in export volumes. Economic interpretation indicates that a one-unit increase in railway freight turnover leads to a substantial average increase of 1627720.728 units in export volumes. The absence of heteroskedasticity reinforces the robustness of the model.

UPAYA SEKOLAH EKSPOR DALAM MENCETAK EKSPORTIR BARU MELALUI PROGRAM STUDI INDEPENDEN BERSERTIFIKAT “BE A DIGITAL EXPORTER"

The National Export School Foundation is an institution that provides export training by utilizing digital technology. The aim of this program is to train students in managing and developing their export business so that it can be competitive and sustainable by utilizing digital technology. In this program participants take part in routine activities consisting of providing material, preparing written work, and exams. Apart from that, there are activities such as seminars, export trips, and attending trade shows. The main activity in this program is the practice of developing an export business plan through empowering MSMEs. The author sees that the efforts made by the Export School can improve the country's export performance and realize the hopes initiated by the Indonesian Ministry of Trade to advance Indonesia's export activities by producing 500 thousand new exporters by 2030. The research method used uses a qualitative approach. Data collection was carried out using observation techniques and documentation of the results of observations that could be concluded. The results of this research are that students can carry out activities and develop products locally so they can be marketed globally. Through this activity, it is hoped that students will be able to carry out export activities.

ФАКТОРЫ ФОРМИРОВАНИЯ ГОСУДАРСТВЕННОЙ ЭКСПОРТНОЙ ПОЛИТИКИ

One of the most important strategic directions of the state is the growth of the volume of agricultural products and food and the formation of a national export policy. Currently, the development of export activities in the agricultural sector of the economy is becoming one of the conditions for increasing the level of sustainability and stability of its economic growth. This is due to the fact that food around the world is an indicator of wellbeing, regardless of nation. Food is becoming practically the main strategic product. It, regardless of the socio-economic development of the state, becomes an effective means of confrontation between countries. It should be noted that the main role in the world market for food and agricultural raw materials is played by economically developed countries, which solve the food problem in their own interests. At the same time, despite the great agrarian potential, the competitive advantages of the state are manifested, as a rule, in the raw materials market of agri-food products, which becomes one of the main obstacles to the development of exports of agricultural products of any state. In addition, the low level of competitiveness of agricultural raw materials reduces the efficiency of their export supplies. A high level of competitiveness of agricultural products, raw materials and food can be achieved both by stimulating exports and through technical and technological modernization of agroindustrial products. It is also necessary to develop an export infrastructure, the task of which is to promote domestic products to the foreign market of agricultural products, raw materials and food. It is possible to increase the production of highly competitive, high-quality products intended for export only if there is an effective national export policy, which should be based on factors influencing the strategic directions of export of agri-food products.

ANALYSIS OF GROWTH AND CROPPING PATTERN CHANGES OF INDIAN AGRICULTURE SINCE INDEPENDENCE: CRITICAL ACCOUNT ON THE SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT PERSPECTIVES

Agriculture, land use and food security are at the main subject of the debates in the 2015 development goals and targets. However, hunger and food insecurity remain major development priorities in the recent decades. Nevertheless, the existing agriculture, changes in land use patterns and food systems are critical to sustaining poor people’s life and livelihoods. The 2015 Sustainable Development goals and agendas need to support for more productive, environmentally sustainable and resilient while safeguarding and augmenting life and livelihood of the mass through agricultural sustainability. With this background, the present research paper attempted to analyze, the trend of the agricultural sector in terms of growth rates of area production, quantity production, yield of selected crops and its share to national income towards achieving food security towards zero hunger over the last seven decades since its Independence in India and examine the relative contribution of area yield, output changes in relation to other related variable like rainfall, fertilizers and land use pattern in India. The study findings indicate a notable trend in the agricultural sector: the proportion of agricultural imports within the realm of agricultural commodities saw a steady rise, climbing from 2.79 percent to 5.07 percent spanning the years from 1990-91 to 2021-22. Conversely, the proportion of agricultural commodity exports relative to the overall national export share experienced a gradual decline, diminishing from 18.47 percent to 11.94 percent over the same period. Moreover, data reveals significant growth in key agricultural metrics. The total cultivated area for food grain production expanded substantially, surging from 97.32 million hectares in 1950-51 to 129.34 million hectares by 2020-21. Concurrently, the quantity of food grain produced exhibited remarkable

Research on China's Overseas Investment Expropriation Insurance ——Based on MIGA's Experience and Enlightenment

With the promotion of the "Belt and Road" initiative, the scale of China's overseas FDI has been growing exponentially, and the exposure of Chinese enterprises to overseas investment to political risks has also been on the increase. It is common for major capital-exporting countries in the world to safeguard themselves against overseas investment risks by creating an overseas insurance system for such investments. Amongst them, the Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency (MIGA) is a representative insurance system, which is also a modality that China can learn from. At this moment, the China National Export and Credit Insurance Corporation (Sinosure) is the exclusive domestic commercial enterprise that covers overseas capital investment insurances in China. There are still some deficiencies in the scope of coverage, insurance premium regulations and underwriting conditions in the field of insurance. This essay investigates the issues of collection on insurance for Sinosure 's overseas ventures, learns from MIGA's insurance system, and puts forward suggestions for improvement.

인천항 중고자동차 수출 활성화 방안에 관한 연구

Purpose: This study presents practical support measures for problems found in the status and analysis of used car exports from the Port of Incheon.
 Research design, data, and methodology: The research method focuses on a study of the literature.
 Results: In the first half of 2023, there were 234,614 used cars exported through Incheon’s port, an increase of 56.9% compared to the same period in the previous year, which accounted for 76.3% of national exports. However, there has not been enough research conducted recently on the export of used cars, and it is time to perform various studies to promote used cars as a new export engine for Incheon.
 Conclusions: Accordingly, to increase the export of used cars from Incheon, it is necessary to implement the following. First, attract pure car and truck carriers (PCTCs) and container routes; second, expand multimodal transport; third, secure container loading sites for used cars; fourth, operate an incentive system to attract port traffic from different countries; and lastly, revitalize Incheon Smart Auto Valley to serve as an export complex for used cars, providing it on time.

Control over the circulation of dual-use goods and technologies within the international regimes of non-proliferation of weapons of mass destruction

International legal cooperation in the field of control over the export, transfer, transit of dual-use goods and technologies is based on a number of mechanisms of general competence (for example, the UN, WTO) and specific regimes, the core of which constitute international treaties on the non­proliferation of weapons of mass destruction (Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons, Chemical Weapons Convention, Biological Weapons Convention) and related multilateral export control groups (Zanger Committee, Nuclear Suppliers Group, Australian Group).
 While the mentioned international treaties define the goals and basic principles of cooperation of their parties to prevent the spread of nuclear, chemical and biological weapons, the critical task of intergovernmental export groups, capable of responding more promptly to security challenges in the light of technological progress and market dynamics, is to ensure the development and regular updating of lists of controlled goods, dissemination and exchange of best practices in this area, articulation of instructions for participating states regarding the strengthening of national export control systems.
 Such a structure, promoting transparency and responsible behaviour of states, objectively increases the level of international security, ensures more profound and comprehensive cooperation and interaction of participating states, regular exchange of information on sensitive dual-use goods and technologies, which leads to a consensus on the specifics of the implementation of export control systems and harmonisation of national policies and regulatory mechanisms. At the same time, taking into account the "softness” of obligations arising from the activities of specialised export groups, the effectiveness of the control mechanism depends on the goodwill of the participating states and their commitment to the values and goals of these regimes and is also complicated by the limited participation of individual actors (for instance, India, Pakistan, North Korea, etc.).

Can R&D Transfer and Market Openness Improve the National Export Rate? A Global Entrepreneur Perspective

R&D Transfer gives birth to an understanding of the importance of the role of the latest applied research in developing entrepreneurs to compete in the global market. The global market that continues to be dynamic allows the emergence of various access restrictions that make it difficult for entrepreneurs, so the existence of market openness is needed as an entry point for entrepreneurs into the global market. This study aims to solve the gap of a significant decrease in world export levels in 2020 by 2.1%. This problem is considered crucial because this is the worst decline in the last decade. The data in this study was taken through secondary data from the Global Entrepreneurship Monitor (GEM) and the World Bank from various countries on five continents in the 2019-2021 data period. The data is processed using Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) analysis instruments. This study empirically requires that the existence of R&D Transfer can encourage market openness to increase the export rate with a direct effect of 0.577. Thus, R&D Transfer has proven to be able to create new applied research and technology that encourages the creation of market openness for entrepreneurs so that they can compete in the global market and lead to an increase in the National Export Rate. Therefore, the practical implications of this study show that countries need to encourage the existence of R&D Transfer through the fulfillment of Physical Infrastructure and Government Support to increase market opening for increased exports.

Detection and management of soil-borne pathogens in citrus using non-inorganic control practices under greenhouse conditions

Citrus fruits are among the priority crops for Uganda. Government has invested significant resources to boost citrus production due to their potential to increase household income, nutritional security and national exports. However, soil-borne pathogens are among several biotic-factors significantly constraining production. Whereas inorganic chemicals have been applied in the past, they have potential detrimental effects. Therefore, an experiment was conducted in the greenhouse of National Forestry Resources Research Institute (NaFORRI) at Kifu - Mukono in 2020-2021 to determine dominant soil and Citrus pathogens and test efficacy of different non-inorganic citrus pathogen control practices. A randomized complete block design with five treatments replicated thrice was used. The treatments included; hot water, heated wet-soil, fumigated soil, solarized wet-soil, and untreated control. A total of 30 Citrus seeds per variety were treated with sodium-hypochlorite-solution (1:7) before being sown. Soils from above treatments were cultured on Potato and Sabouraud-Dextrose Agar (PDA and SDA) and de Man, Rogosa and Sharp (MRS) agar. Results indicated that Aspergillus niger was the dominant soil-borne pathogen identified in pure cultures. Others included A. flavus, A. fumigatus, A. viridinutans, Penicillium chrysogenum and Fusarium oxysporum. Ranking based on scores in: cost-effectiveness, leaf-health, chlorophyll-intensity and general-health of seedlings revealed solarization (35) as most effective technique for managing soil-borne pathogens, followed by boiling (33), heating (31), untreated control (27) and lastly fumigation (26). Identified pathogens induce aflatoxins in Citrus and lead to great losses during post-harvest handling; they also cause root and fruit-rots. Solarization creates solar-radiation in a miniature greenhouse that kills pathogens. There is a need to study non-inorganic control practices of citrus pathogens under field conditions for improved yields in Uganda.

Состояние и факторы развития международного туризма в странах Ближнего Востока

Development of international tourism is a key direction for economic diversity of Middle Eastern countries. It provides favorable long-time economic aspects and enhances positive image of the region. The purpose of the research is to assess the current state and identify the factors of development of international tourism in the Middle East in order to validate priorities for tourism development applying specific features of each country. Based on comprehensive analysis of the main indicators of tourism, authors identified significant differentiation among countries and different contributions of tourism service exports to the development of national economies. The largest contribution of tourism service export is made by Lebanon, Jordan, Bahrain and the UAE to the national GDP and by the UAE, Saudi Arabia and Egypt to the national exports. In terms of aggregate service exports the Palestinian Authority, Jordan, Saudi Arabia, Lebanon, Egypt and Iraq have the highest contributions. The leading countries in the region are the UAE, Saudi Arabia, and Egypt, which account for two-thirds of the tourism service exports in the Middle East. Based on determining the average values for the region for each indicator, the authors ranked countries into "above average" and "below average" groups to account for the specific characteristics of tourism development in each country. Through the analysis, the authors justified and classified positive and destructive factors of tourism development in the region. The following priorities for tourism development were formulated for countries: focusing on the development of modern tourism infrastructure, especially in Yemen, Lebanon, Bahrain, and Kuwait; promoting tourist attractions; restoring tourist trust in the region's security (Syria, Iraq, Palestinian Authority, Israel, etc.); diversifying the tourism product (UAE, Qatar, Israel, Egypt, Saudi Arabia); providing comprehensive services (UAE, Saudi Arabia, Bahrain); deepening intergovernmental cooperation and creating a joint regional tourism product (for all countries in the region).

La Ruta Perdida del Oro Peruano y sus implicancias en la Seguridad Nacional

In Peru, the mining sector has managed to improve the country's economy and society, contributing up to 10% of PIB and the main minerals are copper, zinc and gold, whose national exports represented more than 60% in 2019, being the gold the second most important mining product. The mining legal regulations that began in 1992, backed by the Peruvian Constitution, have managed to give the necessary impetus to turn this sector into the engine of the nationaleconomy; however, gold production in remote areas ofthe country still have governance problems that create opportunities for organized crime and illegal mining activity, facilitated by factors such as institutional weakness, corruption, poverty, an economy based on money in cash and high levels of informality that affect national security. Peru has complex and substantial challenges in the fight against the illegal gold tradeand despite the time that has elapsed, it requires priority and effective attention, which benefits the inhabitants of those remote areas of the country.

Dampak Pengetahuan Dan Inovasi Bisnis Terhadap Kinerja Usaha Mikro Kecil Menengah (UMKM) Dalam Perspektif Syariah

This research is motivated by MSMEs which have a strategic role in the economy. MSMEs are able to generate new jobs, increase the formation of gross domestic product (GDP), and increase the value of national exports. The goal to be achieved in this study is to determine the impact of business knowledge and innovation on the performance of micro, small and medium enterprises (MSMEs) in a sharia perspective. The research method used in this research is descriptive quantitative. Quantitative analysis of descriptive data was carried out using multiple linear regression analysis. The population of this study were convection entrepreneurs in the Subang Regency area, as many as 107 convection entrepreneurs, where the sampling technique used in this study used saturated sampling. The results of the study were obtained simultaneously and partially, that the business knowledge and innovation of the convection entrepreneurs in Subang Regency had a significant effect on the sustainability variable of the convection business in Subang Regency. To cope with the changes, convection businesses must innovate in their digital media so that sales are not only made through offline sales but also online, so that consumers no longer leave their homes to buy products from convection in Subang district.

Evaluating Wheat Suppliers Using Fuzzy MCDM Technique

Wheat has significantly impacted food security in numerous countries. Like the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region, Jordan’s daily diet contains a sizable amount of wheat. Further, Jordan is dealing with several issues, including rapid population growth, water scarcity, widespread urbanization, and limited agricultural wheat production. Thus, it imports most of its wheat and wheat products. Moreover, the method of selecting suppliers in Jordan is unique, as private importers import for the benefit of the government, and thus, the selection of suppliers is carried out by importers. This study aims to examine the various supplier selection approaches to determine Jordan’s primary wheat suppliers and rank them according to specified criteria. The fuzzy-VIKOR approach was used to assess, select, and rank the best wheat suppliers in Jordan. The findings suggest that Romania is the best supplier of wheat for Jordan. It is recognized as the most affordable and trustworthy supplier since it is nearby, has strong links through official channels, and is flexible. Suppliers are subject to change or adjust their offerings as a result of changes in the global economy, wheat prices at the source, exchange rates, transportation and handling costs, crises, and national export levies. This study will help importers, decision-makers, and others concerned with wheat imports as a strategic commodity identify and select suppliers.

Penguatan Daya Saing Komoditas Kelapa Sulawesi Utara dalam Pasar Asia Pasifik melalui Unit Bisnis Strategis Pengeloaan Kelapa Terpadu Skala Industri Pedesaan

This study is a strategic analysis of the current condition of empowering the coconut industry in North Sulawesi which is reflected in the performance of national exports. The hypothesis that has been developed refers to the comparative strength of the competitiveness of countries in the Southeast Asian region in facing the Asia Pacific free trade era as a turbolence effect of world free trade openness which has caused international market competition to become increasingly extreme due to the rapid advancement of information technology. Vibration of the rural economy has significance for the resilience of a country's national economy. On the other hand, open access to world information that has reached rural areas is not fragmented by the touch of technological advances in the coconut processing industry in rural areas and is still trapped by its traditional stigma. The analysis of this paper elaborates on the implementation of value engineering innovations in downstream integrated coconut processing on a rural industrial scale as a breakthrough in efforts to accelerate the distribution of skills and welfare of rural farming communities in improving the final quality of downstreaming people's coconut products, as a contribution to bridging the reality of inequality in economic empowerment and applied technology in rural North Sulawesi.

Mapping smallholder cashew plantations to inform sustainable tree crop expansion in Benin

Cashews are grown by over 3 million smallholder farmers in >40 countries worldwide as a principal source of income. Expanding the area of cashew plantations and increasing productivity are critical to improving the livelihood of many smallholder communities. As the third largest cashew producer in Africa, Benin has nearly 200,000 smallholder cashew growers contributing 15% of the country's national export earnings. Expansion of the cashew industry is thus an essential economic driver and a governmental priority in Benin. However, a lack of information on where and how cashew trees grow across the country hinders decision-making that could support increased cashew production and poverty alleviation. By leveraging 2.4-m Planet Basemaps and 0.5-m aerial imagery, two newly developed deep learning algorithms, and large-scale ground truth datasets, we successfully produced the first-of-its-kind national map of cashew in Benin and characterized the expansion of cashew plantations between 2015 and 2021. In particular, we developed a SpatioTemporal Classification with Attention (STCA) model to map the distribution of cashew plantations with 2.4-m multi-temporal Planet Basemaps from 2019 to 2021, which can fully capture texture information from discriminative time steps during a growing season. The U-Net model was employed to map the distribution of cashew plantation with 0.5-m mono-temporal aerial imagery in 2015, which can achieve accurate and fast predictions even with limited training data. We further developed a Clustering Augmented Self-supervised Temporal Classification (CASTC) model to distinguish high-density versus low-density cashew plantations by automatic feature extraction and optimized clustering. Results show that the STCA model has an overall accuracy over 85% based on 1400 ground truth point samples from each year. The CASTC model achieved an overall accuracy of 76% based on 348 ground truth samples of planting density. We found that the cashew area in Benin has almost doubled to 519 ± 20 kha from 2015 to 2021 with 60% of new plantation development coming from cropland or fallow land, while encroachment of cashew plantations into protected areas has increased by 55%. Only about half of cashew plantations were high-density in 2021, suggesting high potential for intensification. Our study illustrates the power of combining high-resolution remote sensing imagery and state-of-the-art deep learning algorithms to better understand tree crops in the heterogeneous smallholder landscape, which can help efficiently allocate limited training and nursery resources for sustainable agricultural development.