Natural Disasters Research Articles

Power supply disruptions deter electric vehicle adoption in cities in China

Electrification plays a crucial role in deep decarbonization. However, electrification and power infrastructure can cause mutual challenges. We use nationwide power outage and electric vehicle adoption data in China to provide empirical evidence on how power infrastructure failures can deter electrification. We find that when the number of power outages per district increases by 1 in a given month, the number of new electric vehicles adopted per month decreases by 0.99%. A doubling of power outages in one year on average across the nation can create a depressed adoption rate for up to a decade, implying a decline of more than $ 31.3 million per year in carbon reduction benefits from electric vehicle adoptions. This paper adds to the policy discussion of the costs of increased power outages due to extreme weather and natural disasters, and the urgency for policy to address this issue to facilitate wide adoption of electrification.

Assessment of PERSIANN Satellite Products over the Tulijá River Basin, Mexico

Precipitation is a fundamental component of the Earth’s hydrological cycle. Therefore, monitoring precipitation is paramount, as accurate information is needed to prevent natural hydrological disasters, such as floods and droughts. However, measuring precipitation using rain gauges is complicated due to their sparse spatial distribution. Satellite precipitation products (SPPs) are an alternative source of rainfall data. This study aimed to evaluate the performance of PERSIANN-CCS and PDIR-Now SPPs over the Tulijá River Basin (Chiapas, Mexico) using scatter plots, categorical statistics, descriptive statistics, and decomposing total bias. Additionally, bias correction was performed using the quantile mapping (QM) method. QM is a technique used to improve the fit of SPPs with respect to rainfall observations through a transfer function, aiming to reduce systematic errors in SPPs. The results indicate that the PDIR-Now product tends to overestimate rainfall to a large extent, thus showing better performance in detecting rain events. Meanwhile, PERSIANN-CCS underestimates precipitation to a lesser extent. The findings of this study demonstrate that correcting the bias of SPPs improves estimations of rainfall records, thereby reducing the percentage bias and root mean square error.

Enhanced framework to mitigate maintenance strategy failure of electric power plant during crises

In engineering, a design is best described based on its alternative performance operation. In this paper, an electric power plant is analysed based on its effective operational performance even during critical situation or crisis. Data is generated and analysed using both quantitative and qualitative research approach. During maintenance operation of an electric power plant, some components are susceptible to wide range of issues or crises. These includes natural disasters, supply chain disruptions, cyberattacks, and economic downturns. These crises significantly impact power plant operations and its maintenance strategies. Also, the reliable operation of power plants is often challenged by various technical, operational, and environmental issues. In this research, an investigation is conducted on the problems associated with electric power plants by proposing a comprehensive and novel framework to maintenance the power plant during crises. Based on the achieved results discussed, the framework impact and contribution are the integration of proactive maintenance planning, resilient maintenance strategies, advanced technologies, and adaptive measures to ensure the reliability and resilience of electric power plant during power generation operations in the face of unforeseen challenges/crisis. Hypothetical inferences are used ranging from mechanical failures to environmental constraints. The research also presents a structured approach to ensure continuous operation and effective maintenance in the electric power plant, particularly during crisis (such as environmental issues and COVID-19 pandemic issues).

Testing and evaluation of light clothing properties used in fire and rescue service units

In the testing room for examination products of the Fire Engineering and Expert Institute (FEEI) of the Ministry of the Interior of the Slovak Republic in Bratislava, the Slovak National Accreditation Service SNAS has granted accreditation. Accredited testing room with identification number no. S-084 performs tests applied in the field of personal protective equipment. The goal is to specify, determine, and, above all, verify the selected characteristics for emergency clothing (light emergency clothing - LEC) used by firefighters and rescuers in the Fire and Rescue Service units to determine the conditions for procurement and quality control of the LEC supplied. The results obtained during the examination of the properties of light emergency clothing will be used in the next steps of the research of the Product Assessment Department (PAD) FEEI of the Ministry of the Interior of the Slovak Republic. In contrast, individual parameters can be used to design new LEC. The basic meaning and purpose of any protective means are to protect a person who intervenes in a dangerous environment contaminated with chemical, biological or radioactive substances, for example, in industrial accidents connected with the release of dangerous substances (HAZMAT), in accidents of vehicles transporting HAZMAT and natural disasters or fires of various nature. Protecting from the external environment is one of the favourable inherent properties of personal protective work equipment (PPE).

Natural Disaster Mitigation Strategies: A Comprehensive Review

The world is often rocked by the devastating effects of natural disasters, presenting a formidable challenge to communities everywhere. In order to address these challenges and minimize their impact, it becomes imperative for proactive measures to be taken. This comprehensive review delves into the wide array of strategies put in place to mitigate the vulnerability of both populations and infrastructure when faced with these hazardous occurrences. Taking into account an extensive range of literature, case studies, and expert opinions, this review strives to synthesize crucial findings that shed light on effective approaches towards mitigation. It commences by classifying natural disasters according to their distinct characteristics and geographical spread, bringing attention to their individual traits. Furthermore, it embarks on an analysis aimed at uncovering the root causes and driving factors behind these calamities - underlining how essential it is for us all to comprehend their dynamics in order to craft tailored mitigation plans. The significance of pre-disaster preparedness is emphasized through an exploration of risk assessment procedures, early warning systems implementation practices as well as land-use planning strategies. The critique emphasizes the importance of proactive measures, such as fortifying infrastructure and incorporating resilience principles into city planning. It also discusses the vital role of community engagement, education, and capacity building in bolstering disaster preparedness at a local level. The review delves into innovative methods for promoting community resilience, including participatory decision-making processes and initiatives focused on knowledge exchange. Furthermore, it evaluates the impact of technological advancements like remote sensing, geographic information systems (GIS), and predictive modeling on enhancing early warning systems, risk assessment protocols, and disaster response efforts. The analysis suggests various opportunities for utilizing technology to strengthen mitigation strategies effectively Post-disaster Response and Recovery: Analyzing the challenges and opportunities in postdisaster response and recovery efforts, emphasizing the importance of rapid and coordinated interventions to restore essential services, infrastructure, and livelihoods. The review explores strategies for promoting resilient reconstruction and long-term recovery. Policy Frameworks and International Cooperation: Evaluating the role of policy frameworks, international cooperation, and funding mechanisms in supporting effective disaster mitigation efforts. The review identifies policy gaps and barriers to implementation, along with recommendations for enhancing policy coherence and coordination at the national and international levels. In conclusion, this comprehensive review underscores the multidimensional nature of natural disaster mitigation and the importance of adopting integrated approaches that combine technical expertise, community engagement, and policy support. By synthesizing existing knowledge and best practices, this review provides valuable insights for policymakers, practitioners, and researchers striving to build more resilient and sustainable communities in the face of natural hazards. By synthesizing existing knowledge and best practices, this review provides valuable insights for policymakers, practitioners, and researchers striving to build more resilient and sustainable communities in the face of natural hazards.

Using Nighttime Light Data to Explore the Extent of Power Outages in the Florida Panhandle after 2018 Hurricane Michael

The destructive forces of tropical cyclones can have significant impacts on the land, contributing to degradation through various mechanisms such as erosion, debris, loss of vegetation, and widespread damage to infrastructure. Storm surge and flooding can wash away buildings and other structures, deposit debris and sediments, and contaminate freshwater resources, making them unsuitable for both human use and agriculture. High winds and flooding often damage electrical disubstations and transformers, leading to disruptions in electricity supply. Restoration can take days or even weeks, depending on the extent of the damage and the resources available. In the meantime, communities affected by power outages may experience difficulties accessing essential services and maintaining communication. In this study, we used a weighted maximum likelihood classification algorithm to reclassify NOAA’s National Geodetic Survey Emergency Response Imagery scenes into debris, sand, water, trees, and roofs to assess the extent of the damage around Mexico Beach, Florida, following the 2018 Hurricane Michael. NASA’s Visible Infrared Imaging Radiometer Suite (VIIRS) Day/Night Band (DNB) was processed to estimate power outage duration and rate of restoration in the Florida Panhandle based on the 7-day moving averages. Percent loss of electrical service at a neighborhood level was estimated using the 2013–2017 American Community Survey block group data. Spatial lag models were employed to examine the association between restoration rates and socioeconomic factors. The analysis revealed notable differences in power-restoration rates between urbanized and rural areas and between disadvantaged and more affluent communities. The findings indicated that block groups with higher proportions of minorities, multi-family housing units, rural locations, and households receiving public assistance experienced slower restoration of power compared to urban and more affluent neighborhoods. These results underscore the importance of integrating socioeconomic factors into disaster preparedness and recovery-planning efforts, emphasizing the need for targeted interventions to mitigate disparities in recovery times following natural disasters.

Migration: Concept, Factors, Impacts and Migration in India

Migration is the term used to describe the movement of people from one location to another, usually entailing a change of habitation. This movement can occur between nations (international migration) or within a nation (internal migration). A summary of the idea, contributing causes, effects, and Indian context is provided here. Numerous political, social, economic, and environmental elements all have an impact on the complicated issue of migration. It can happen for a variety of reasons, including the pursuit of better economic opportunities, avoidance violence or harassment, reuniting with family, or responding to environmental triggers like natural catastrophes or climate change. It can also be forced or voluntary, temporary or permanent. In summary, migration is a complex issue that affects people on an individual, societal, and economic level. To effectively manage and exploit migration's possible benefits while reducing its obstacles, policy must take into account the variables that force migration and its effects. India's tendencies in international migration have changed significantly throughout time, motivated by social dynamics, political reasons, and economic opportunities. All things considered, migration from India abroad is a complicated phenomenon that is impacted by domestic ties, global mobility patterns, educational goals, and economic prospects. Migration trends and reasons from India change in tandem with the global environment.

Numerical Analysis of Roof Wind Pressure Distribution in Renovated Historical Buildings: Preventive Protection Measures to Mitigate Typhoon Damage

Strong winds or typhoon disasters pose significant risks to historical buildings in many countries and regions. Although numerous researchers have discussed the damage caused by natural wind disasters, little attention has been paid to the potential impact of renovation and adaptive reuse strategies on the wind resistance performance of historical buildings—an avoidable human-induced factor. This study selected the representative ancestral hall building in Guangzhou, namely Lujiang Academy, for on-site investigation and Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) simulation analysis. It examined two renovation approaches: installing glass curtain walls around the courtyard and enclosing the top of the courtyard with a glass canopy. This study also assessed the roof wind pressure distribution in its unaltered state to evaluate the impact of different renovation strategies on roof wind load distribution. The results showed that installing glass curtain walls can effectively reduce the upward suction effect on the main hall roof, thereby improving its wind resistance performance. Conversely, enclosing the courtyard with a glass canopy may increase negative pressure on areas such as the eaves and corridor roofs, raising the risk of roof damage. This study systematically evaluated the renovation strategies for historical buildings, detailing the specific impacts of different retrofit measures on the wind resistance performance of building roofs. The methods and findings are significant not only for the renovation of ancestral hall heritage buildings in Guangzhou but also for providing practical scientific methods and technical strategies for the conservation and renovation of similar historical structures. This research demonstrates an effective approach to enhancing wind resistance and preventive protection for historical buildings.

Community perception and experience of health services in the midst of an earthquake and COVID-19 pandemic: A phenomenological study

Indonesia is located on the Pacific Ring of Fire with various disasters occurring frequently and causing tremendous impacts. Recently, Mamuju Regency in West Sulawesi was hit by an earthquake during the COVID-19 pandemic, making primary health care (PHC) a major community health care provider facing several issues. This study aims to explore the challenges and supporting factors of the recovery of PHC after the earthquake during the COVID-19 pandemic using a descriptive phenomenology grounded in Edmund Husserl's philosophy. The Bamboo PHC (Puskesmas Bambu) was selected as the only PHC in Mamuju which was most affected by the earthquake. A focus group discussion method was conducted by involving 15 participants selected using purposive sampling and divided into three groups (health workers, health cadres, and community members). As a result, the community members acknowledged that the Bamboo PHC services programs in general were favorable before the pandemic, there were several basic and superior health service programs that the community felt were valuable. Yet, the COVID-19 pandemic worsened the situation and the use of healthcare facilities decreased. Coupled with the occurrence of natural disasters in vulnerable areas, it is increasingly causing fatalities. Therefore, disaster preparedness and community empowerment are the key to successful disaster management.

Optimal insurance for repetitive natural disasters under moral hazard

Optimal insurance for repetitive natural disasters under moral hazard

Progressive Collapse and Post Impact Damage Assessment in a Regular Beam-Slab Building & Flat-Slab Building on the Intermediate Floor

Progressive collapse, where a localized member failure causes widespread structural collapse, has become a critical concern nowadays, due to its potential to cause significant financial losses and loss of human life. Triggers include natural disasters like earthquakes and floods, as well as accidents, attacks and explosions. Reinforced concrete flat slab structures, which are eminent for their architectural flexibility and have larger spans, are particularly susceptible to disproportionate collapse, due to the lack of floor beams, which can redistribute loads after a column failure, unlike moment frame buildings. This research examines how multi-story reinforced concrete flat slab buildings behave, under prescribed gravity load combinations, compared to conventional framed buildings. The effects of removing columns at specified locations from an intermediate floor of the multistorey building are also examined. However, this investigation covers both the column removal approaches to check a possibility of disproportionate collapse which are; static removal and dynamic instantaneous removal. Furthermore, the research also assesses the efficacy of perimeter beams, in minimising the risk of gradual collapse in flat slab structures, by scrutinising their ability to reduce joint displacement, chord rotation, and demand capacity ratio. ETABS v18 was used to analyze all the 18 models. The findings revealed that buildings are more prone to progressive collapse when corner columns are removed, as opposed to edge and interior columns, due to higher Demand-Capacity Ratios (DCR) and joint displacement. In comparison to dynamic analysis, the static evaluation exhibited greater DCR values and vertical joint displacement. Furthermore, since they have a more efficient load redistribution mechanism, traditional framed structures performed better than flat slab models. The simulations additionally indicated that, adding edge perimeter beams, substantially lowered the possibility of progressive collapse in flat slab structures. Moreover, the tested flat slab building models, with and without perimeter beams showed no indications of progressive collapse, when specified columns were removed from the intermediate floors, since the DCR values of the crucial columns stayed within the permissible range of 2.0. In conclusion, structures built in compliance with IS 1893:2016 code and designed to withstand seismic loads demonstrate stronger resistance against significant damage, brought about by column failures.

A CNN- and Transformer-Based Dual-Branch Network for Change Detection with Cross-Layer Feature Fusion and Edge Constraints

Change detection aims to identify the difference between dual-temporal images and has garnered considerable attention over the past decade. Recently, deep learning methods have shown robust feature extraction capabilities and have achieved improved detection results; however, they exhibit limitations in preserving clear boundaries for the identified regions, which is attributed to the inadequate contextual information aggregation capabilities of feature extraction, and fail to adequately constrain the delineation of boundaries. To address this issue, a novel dual-branch feature interaction backbone network integrating the CNN and Transformer architectures to extract pixel-level change information was developed. With our method, contextual feature aggregation can be achieved by using a cross-layer feature fusion module, and a dual-branch upsampling module is employed to incorporate both spatial and channel information, enhancing the precision of the identified change areas. In addition, a boundary constraint is incorporated, leveraging an MLP module to consolidate fragmented edge information, which increases the boundary constraints within the change areas and minimizes boundary blurring effectively. Quantitative and qualitative experiments were conducted on three benchmarks, including LEVIR-CD, WHU Building, and the xBD natural disaster dataset. The comprehensive results show the superiority of the proposed method compared with previous approaches.

Disaster Capitalism and Social Policy: Social Work in the Aftermath of Natural Disasters

ABSTRACT Unpredictable timing, disruption of community and health services, severe economic impacts, and the deterioration of psychosocial well-being necessitate the evaluation of natural disasters from a social work perspective. Social workers play critical roles in these situations, such as connecting disadvantaged groups with necessary resources, protecting individuals’ well-being, assessing needs, and providing relief and support. The core roles and functions of the social work profession, which emphasize a people-centered, rights-based approach, become particularly significant after a disaster. Neoliberal policies and disaster capitalism exploit the fear and anxiety generated by natural disasters to gain public consent for practices that may not be in their best interests. In this context, fear appeals can be manipulated as a persuasive tool to make disaster-affected citizens accept policies and practices they would typically reject. This study outlines the issues that social workers should address at micro, meso, and macro levels to counteract the influence of neoliberal policies and disaster capitalism, which leverage the fear and anxiety induced by natural disasters to secure public consent for unfavorable practices.

“I Gain a Resilient Self”: Exploring Disaster Identity Communication and Posttraumatic Growth of Young Adults in Chinese Culture

ABSTRACT Natural disasters can have both negative and positive impacts on survivors’ mental health, including posttraumatic growth (PTG). This study applies the Communication Theory of Identity (CTI), which posits that identity is a multi-layered construct shaped through and reflected in communication, to explore PTG through identity lenses among young adults (aged 21–30 years, 9 females and 6 males) in the aftermath of a devastating urban flood within Chinese culture. Fifteen semi-structured interviews were conducted to understand the relationship between their identities and PTG. A deductive qualitative content analysis was employed to analyze data. Participants described their specific self change within four identity frames: personal, relational, enacted, and communal. Within each frame, several sub-categories of disaster-related identity changes are identified. Furthermore, two identity gaps were identified during the disaster: personal-enacted and personal-relational, which reflect the discrepancies among identity frames. The findings indicate that young adults can experience PTG while communicating their specific identities, but identity gaps hinder this process. The study suggests that Confucianism in Chinese culture may play a supportive role in facilitating PTG during the disaster.

Does historical natural disaster affect corporate risk-taking nowadays? — Evidence from Yellow River flooding in China

Does historical natural disaster affect corporate risk-taking nowadays? — Evidence from Yellow River flooding in China

Research on GNSS-IR soil moisture retrieval based on random forest algorithm

Abstract Soil moisture (SM) retrieval is of great significance in climate, agriculture, ecology, hydrology, and natural disaster monitoring, and it is one of the essential hydrometeorological parameters studied in the world at present. With the continuous development of the GNSS, a technique called GNSS-IR became widely used in ground SM inversion. Therefore, based on the frequency, amplitude and phase of signal-to-noise ratio residuals (δSNR), this study takes P037 and P043 stations set by UNAVCO in the United States as examples and develops the research of SM inversion from Random Forest Regression (RFR) prediction. The experimental results show that the retrieval accuracy of SM under different practical schemes can be in descending order: L1 + L2 dual frequency combination > L2 single frequency > L1 single frequency. It is confirmed that the experimental scheme based on the L1+L2 dual-frequency combination is beneficial to the inversion of SM. In the L1+L2 dual-frequency combination, the prediction set accuracy of the P037 station is as follows: R is 0.796, RMSE is 0.032 cm3cm-3, ME is 0.002 cm3cm-3. The prediction accuracy of the P043 station is as follows: R is 0.858, RMSE is 0.039 cm3cm-3, ME is -0.009 cm3cm-3. Among them, the RMSE of the L1+L2 dual-frequency combination of the two stations has an improvement effect of 13%-37% compared with their single-frequency, which has a noticeable improvement effect. The difference between the SM retrieved by GNSS-IR and the reference value of PBO-H2O is concentrated around 0, further showing the accuracy of SM retrieved by GNSS-IR technology. To sum up, this study considers that SM retrieval based on the RFR model has good reliability and accuracy, which makes GNSS-IR technology an efficient means for SM retrieval. With the continuous improvement of the GNSS system and technology, the application of GNSS-IR technology in SM will become broader.

Stakeholders’ participation in decreasing wildfire risk in the context of natural resource management in the Podpoľanie region of Slovakia

Key MessageAs the number and extent of wildfires are increasing due to climate change and human impacts, the demand for effective risk reduction strategies is growing. Due to limited resources or management capabilities in Slovakia, appropriate multistakeholder participation could help decrease the risk of wildfires while continuing to implement the principles of sustainable forest management. Thus, we recommend improving relationships with responsible stakeholders and increasing their knowledge.ContextAlthough the frequency of wildfires has declined in Slovakia, the total burned area per year and the average burned area per fire have increased rapidly, mainly due to traditional land management and increasing numbers of natural disasters resulting from climate change.AimThe objective of this study is to assess the participation and management of stakeholders in the region of Podpoľanie, which is the region of Slovakia that is most prone to wildfires. In particular, this study investigates the questions of who is accountable, in what networks, and with regard to what issues with the goal of enhancing efforts to combat wildfires.MethodsThis single-country case study features an exploratory sequential mixed-methods design. While stakeholders’ participation was explored via face-to-face interviews and interest-influence matrices, stakeholders’ prioritization was assessed via an online survey and the quantitative mapping of stakeholders’ involvement, power, interest, and knowledge.ResultsWe separately identified primary stakeholders (e.g., fire departments and state-owned forest enterprises) and secondary stakeholders (e.g., municipalities and community members). Tasks related to efforts to combat wildfires were largely in compliance with legal regulations and other mandates. Nonetheless, some stakeholders (e.g., governmental organizations involved in nature protection or nonstate forest owners and the associated enterprises) lacked the knowledge, experience, or responsibility necessary to perform these tasks.ConclusionThese stakeholders should be informed and monitored closely to achieve outcomes that can benefit a variety of stakeholders. We recommend a plan that involves improving the relationships among primary and secondary stakeholders, increasing their knowledge, and promoting effective participation to decrease the risk of wildfires in the region.

A three-level robust scenario-based model for resilience-oriented placement of remote-controlled switches in distribution networks

This paper introduces an innovative strategy to improve the resilience of Distribution Networks (DN) following natural disasters. The approach involves a multi-stage model for the strategic placement of Remote-Controlled Switches (RCS) to expedite fault isolation and service restoration. The model integrates various resilience enhancement techniques, such as network reconfiguration and microgrid formation, throughout the pre-disaster, disaster progression, and post-disaster phases. To mitigate uncertainties related to line failures and ensure planning robustness, a novel three-level Robust Scenario-based Model (RSM) is introduced. The RSM optimizes the strategic RCS placement to enhance System Performance Criteria (SPC) in response to anticipated line failure scenarios, considering individual line vulnerabilities and disaster severity. Subsequently, the model identifies the most critical failures from each predicted scenario based on RCS placements and then recalibrates the placements to enhance DN resilience against both anticipated and critical failures. The RSM is formulated as a mixed-integer linear programming problem to maximize SPC by allocating resources optimally to serve maximum weighted loads while adhering to structural and operational constraints. The effectiveness and validity of the proposed model are demonstrated through case studies conducted on a modified IEEE 33-bus test system and a modified real DN.

Multi-risk instruments for emergency response: a multi-hazard and multi-risk assessment of the European Union's Solidarity and Emergency Aid Reserve.

Natural hazard-related disasters are on the rise and have significant impacts on the public and private sector. Different mechanisms and instruments exist on the pan-European level to deal with them, including the European Union Solidarity Fund (EUSF). Recently, the EUSF expanded its scope to incorporate public health emergencies and merged with the Emergency Aid Reserve to become the Solidarity and Emergency Aid Reserve. It therefore became a multi-hazard and multi-risk instrument to assist countries during the emergency phase of disasters. As different types of hazards and risks are drawing from the same fund there is concern about what capitalisation levels have to be assumed to make it sustainable. Hence, it is important to understand to which hazards and risks the fund is most exposed and whether there are regional differences within Europe. To address these issues, this paper takes a risk-based approach and estimates the capitalisation levels needed for major hazards and risks, noting regional differences across Europe.

Coastal fisheries and community-based support systems in post disaster contexts

Pacific Island Countries and Territories are highly exposed to natural disasters, intensified by increases in frequency and force of extreme weather events. Pacific societies, like in Vanuatu, have been shaped in many ways by such natural disasters; reflected in customary practices and social fabric of rural coastal communities. When a natural disaster occurs, government attention justifiably focuses on channelling and coordinating international humanitarian aid to fill gaps in capacity and resourcing national recovery efforts. However, central to disaster recovery, particularly in the immediate aftermath of disruption, are the ways that local people support each other (within and between communities). Disconnects between national and local recovery efforts are common and stand to inhibit effective responses. This study aims to understand horizontal, self-organised community-to-community support systems and communities’ post-disaster engagement with external aid. It draws from two different datasets: i) the observations collected through the emergency relief work led by the National Disaster Management Office in Vanuatu shortly after the 2023 twin tropical cyclones Judy and Kevin hit the country, as well as ii) the loss and damage survey led by the Vanuatu Fisheries Department to estimate the level of damage these cyclones caused in various regions of Vanuatu. Through this process, we highlight the social systems that enable community-to-community support, as well as potential opportunities for external-aid to support communities in a more efficient manner. Results reveal that community-to-community support is critical in the first weeks post-disaster. Recognizing the roles that different support networks play at different stages of disaster response is critical not only to improving people's and institutions' ability to bounce back from particular disruptions, but also in broader efforts to strengthen community resilience in the face of climate change.