National Centre For Agricultural Mechanization Research Articles

Statistical modelling of a tractor tractive performance during ploughing operation on a tropical Alfisol

Abstract Tractor is the most prominent off-road agricultural machinery that is significant to the global food security. The tractive modelling of tyre–soil interaction and agricultural implement dynamics is a complex phenomenon that require holistic approach. Terramechanics techniques such as empirical, semi-empirical, analytical, and numerical methods such as finite element models and discrete element models have gained traction in tractive performance studies. Some of these approaches are premised on large arrays of variables for modelling tractive performance based on the soil–tyre and tools interactions. In this study, soft computing in R software domain was used to model the tractor tractive performance during ploughing operations on a tropical Alfisol. The research farm at the National Centre for Agricultural Mechanization was used for the field experiment. The experimental design was a nested-factorial under a Randomized Complete Block Design having three replications. The input factors were tractor power size, T, (60, 65, and 70 hp); tyre inflation pressure, P, (83, 124, and 165 kPa); implement configuration, I, (2 and 3 bottoms disc plough); and operational speed, S, (6.31, 7.90, 9.47, 11.05, and 12.63 km/h). Standard procedures were followed to obtain the measured parameters in the field, which were statistically analysed. Correlation analysis and analysis of variance of the measured parameters at 5% significance level were established. Multiple linear regression was used to develop the model, validated using the 10-fold cross-validation method. The results revealed that the evaluated variables have a range of 1.56–7.79 kN, 5.15–27.20%, 9.10–32.00 cm, 4.50–13.94%, 1.31–1.67 g/cm3, 95.89–207.78 kPa, and 98.67–295.56 for draught, wheel slip, depth of cut, moisture content, bulk density, cone index (CI), and shear stress, respectively. A positive correlation exists between the towing force (TF) and the measured variables except for the shear stress and CI. The final developed model has seven variables for predicting TF with a 6.5% error and an average of 0.4735 cross validation root mean square error. The model quality of fit achieved an R Adj 2 = 0.8754 {R}_{\text{Adj}}^{2}=0.8754 which satisfactorily described the response variable. The study provides insights into tractive dynamic systems modelling of machine, tractive medium (soil), and agricultural tools anchored on soft computing approach. Its adoption will assist in quality ploughing operation integrating the variables established in the model.

Performance evaluation of a modified axial flow water Lifting pump for small to medium irrigation in Nigeria.

Most irrigation pumps used in Nigeria are imported. Consequently, the challenges farmers faced in using these pumps include but not limited to the following; priming before operation, relatively low-capacity delivery at low head and high price which is often time not affordable by peasant farmers. The objective of this research was to develop an axial flow pump with locally sourced materials and affordable by farmers for small to medium scale irrigation in Nigeria. The design of the pump for the study was adopted from an existing and functioning axial pumping machine, developed by Agricultural Machinery and Mechatronics Department, Kasetsart University, Thailand. The pump was fabricated at the workshop of National Centre for Agricultural Mechanization (NCAM), Ilorin, Nigeria. Diesel fuel was used in powering the pump because of higher torque deliverable. The developed pump based on its capacity can be used to irrigate one hectare in one hour at 16.2 mm depth of water using 2000 rpm at 1m head and 9.6 mm depth of water using 1000 rpm at 3 m head. The maximum water discharge of 162 m3/h (45 l/s) was at 1m using a speed of 2000 rpm with water to fuel delivery of 124.29 l/s. The maximum water discharge of 162 m3/h (45 l/s) was at 1m using a speed of 2000 rpm with water to fuel delivery of 119.57m3/L. And the least water discharge of 59.30 m3/h (28 l/s) and water delivery per fuel was 41.0m3/L at 3 m head at 1000 rpm. Therefore, the developed pump operates best at lower head of 1m featuring a 3kW prime mover. The developed pump based on its capacity can be used to irrigate one hectare in one hour at 16.2 mm depth of water using 2000rpm at 1m head and 9.6 mm depth of water using 1000rpm at 3m head at a moisture content of 45% on a sand-loamy soil. Statistical analysis reveals relationships between pump speed, head, fuel consumption, and various performance indicators. The centrifugal pumps were found to produce lower discharge than axial flow pumps at different water heads evaluated. Comparative economic analysis demonstrates the pump's superiority over conventional centrifugal pumps in terms of water-fuel delivery efficiency and operational cost. This study introduced a locally modified axial flow pump as a practical, cost-effective, and efficient solution to irrigation challenges faced by small and medium-scale farmers in Nigeria. This pump has higher capacity delivery, spare parts are readily available at local market, it is appropriate for use where the irrigation head requirements are low and large volumes of water is required to be lifted at low pressure, it is appropriate where water can be lifted from rivers and canals and then directed to farmers' fields for irrigation. It is also applicable in rice farm flooding and flood drainage. This type of pump is good for flood (surface) irrigation system, which include furrow, border, basin irrigation and uncontrolled flooding in loamy and clay soils for rice production and sugarcane productions. The pump's adoption and economic viability positions it as a potential catalyst for increased food production, income, and food security in the country.

Concentration Weathering of some Agrochemicals in Runoff and Soil Interface on the National Centre for Agricultural Mechanization (NCAM) Farm, Ilorin, Nigeria

Agrochemicals are needed to boost agricultural productivity, but substantial quantities are either transported into surface water through runoff or leached into groundwater, which may eventually lead to environmental degradation and pollution. Although several studies have been carried out on the effects of agrochemicals o soil and water qualities but the rate of dissipation of agrochemicals along their pathways are not fully understood yet. The aim of this study therefore was to investigate the level of dissipation of agrochemical elements and compounds as they moved along the furrow. Four experimental fields - NPK fertilizer, urea fertilizer, pesticides (organochlorine) and herbicides (glyphosate) were prepared for this study. The selected agrochemicals were applied on the experimental field and the concentration of chemical elements (electrical conductivity, pH, nitrogen, phosphorus, manganese, zinc, magnesium, potassium, glyphosate and organochlorine) along the furrow were measured at intervals (1 m on a 20 m row) using standard techniques. The range of electrical conductivity, pH, nitrogen, phosphorus, manganese, zinc, magnesium and potassium concentrations for runoff from NPK fertilizer applied field were: 95.75 - 174.51 µS/cm, 5.72 - 7.54, 0.21 - 0.68%, 0.09 - 0.36%, 0.1 - 0.47 mg L-1, 0.25 - 0.66 mg L-1, 4.63 - 7.88 mg L-1 and 7.28 - 16.15 mg L-1; for runoff from Urea fertilizer applied field, the range were: 176.25 - 186.33 µS/cm, 7.14 - 7.64, 0.21 - 0.48 %, 0.21 - 0.38%, 0.41 - 0.65 mg L-1, 0.23 - 0.49 mg L-1, 5.48 - 7.64 mg L-1and 8. 23 - 10.46 mg L-1. The range of electrical conductivity, pH, nitrogen, phosphorus, manganese, zinc and magnesium concentrations for runoff from glyphosate applied field were: 114.00 - 283.78 µS/cm, 6.49 - 7.82, 0.13 - 0.67 mg/kg, 0.03 - 0.09%, 0.41 - 1.60 mg L-1, 0.45 - 2.59 mg L-1, 8.35 - 12.76 mg L-1; and for runoff from organochloride applied field the range were: 344.37 - 380.48 µS/cm, 6.66 - 7.86, 0.30 - 0.56 mg/kg, 0.05 - 0.18%, 0.68 - 0.91 mg L-1, 0.81 - 1.45 mg L-1 12.48 - 14.68 mg L-1. The concentration of agrochemical elements and compounds disintegrate along the furrows on all agrochemical fields except in the case of pH.

Evaluation of Sowing Methods and Herbicide Mixtures for Weed Management and Productivity in Sesame (Sesamum indicum L.)

Sesame is an oil seed crop with great economic value. However, the production of this crop has been limited by weed competition, which prompted a field experiment during the 2021 cropping season in two locations: Teaching and Research Farm, Kwara State University, Malete, and National Centre for Agricultural Mechanization (NCAM), Idofian, Ilorin, Kwara, Nigeria. The aim was to determine the treatment combinations of sowing methods and herbicide mixtures for the effective management of weeds and for increasing sesame productivity in the southern Guinea savanna of Nigeria. The experiment consisted of twenty treatments comprising two sowing methods (dibbling and drilling) and ten weed control methods. Results showed that all the weed control methods reduced weed dry matter (67.15–186.20 and 42.00–92.45 g/m2) than the weedy check (291.55 and 155.55 g/m2) at Malete and NCAM, respectively. They also reduced the weed density (48.40–68.45 and 34.00–50.00/m2) compared to the weedy check (103.60 and 73.15 g/m2) at Malete and NCAM, respectively, from 6 to 12 weeks after planting (WAP). Dibbling (85.15 and 48.81 m2) proved superior to the drilling method (172.42 and 51.58/m2) for the management of weeds from 6–12 WAP and for promoting higher crop yield (dibbling: 78.90 and 422.70 kg/ha; drilling: 37.50 and 326.80 kg/ha) in Malete and NCAM, respectively. The treatment combinations with the highest gross margin were hoeing twice at 3 and 6 WAP × dibbling ($ -191.15 and $ 318.57), pendimethalin (P) + diuron (D) at 0.5 + 0.5 kg a.i./ha ($ -199.88 and $ 182.43), 2.0 + 1.5 × dibbling ($ -273.59 and $ 156.65) and butachlor (B) + diuron (D) at 1.5 + 1.0 kg a.i./ha × drilling ($ -269.59 and $ 177.38) at Malete and NCAM, respectively. Therefore, it is recommended that the dibbling sowing method at a spacing of 30 cm × 30 cm and thinned to 3 plants/stand integrated with herbicide mixtures of pendimethalin at 0.5 + 0.5 kg a.i./ha is recommended as an alternative to hoe weeding for effective weed control, higher yield of sesame, and economic returns.

Influence of Selected Parameters on the Product Yields of Broom Weed (Sida acuta) Pyrolysis

Biomass feedstocks have been utilized for the commercial production of a wide range of fuels and chemicals through the pyrolysis process. Broom weed is abundant but it has not been widely used in Nigeria as a means of useful fuel and chemical thereby constituting an environmental menace. This study aimed to determine the effects of selected process parameters on the product yields during the pyrolysis of broom weed in a fixed bed reactor. Broom weed was obtained at the premises of the National Centre for Agricultural Mechanization, Ilorin, Kwara State, Nigeria. 0.1kg of a dried sample of broom weed was loaded into a steel retort, and the retort interior was rendered airtight. The retort was then placed into the furnace chamber and was pyrolysed at 300oC between 10 - 30 minutes at 5 minutes intervals. This was repeated for temperatures of 350, 400, 450, and 500 oC, and in each case, the quantities of char, bio-oil, and gas produced were determined. The average minimum values of the product yielded char, bio-oil, and gas for broom weed were 62.43 wt% at 500 ⁰C, 4.34 wt% at 300 ⁰C and 12.62 wt% at 300 ⁰C, respectively, while the maximum values were 83.37 wt% at 300 ⁰C, 8.80 wt% at 450 ⁰C and 30.96 wt% at 500 ⁰C, respectively. This study showed that pyrolysis of broom weed can serve as a renewable source of energy rather than constituting an environmental menace.

The effect of mechanized shelling and packaging on the quality of melon seeds

A comparative study was carried out between mechanized shelling and manual shelling of Egusi-melon seeds and the effect of different packaging materials on some quality attributes of shelled Egusi-melon seeds(Bara and Serewe). Egusi-melon seeds were manually shelled and mechanically shelled using the National Centre for Agricultural Mechanization (NCAM) mechanical melon Sheller (2018 and 2020 models) and a Rice huller (SB-10D Rice mill). Shelled Egusi-melon seeds were packaged and stored in kraft paper, glass bottles, laminated pouches, and a low-density polypropylene bag for 10 weeks. The Shelling efficiency of different machines compared to manual shelling (control) was evaluated. Manual shelling (control) was the most efficient in terms of output quality. The 2020 NCAM mechanical melon Sheller was the most efficient of the mechanized processes, while the rice huller was the least efficient. The shelled seeds were evaluated for shelling, free fatty acid, and microbial analysis. Results showed that Bara was more efficiently shelled by machines while Serewe was more efficiently shelled manually. Kraft paper seems to reduce seed spoilage over the storage period compared to the other packaging materials, the seeds shelled using the 2020 NCAM mechanical melon Sheller consistently recorded a significantly lower percentage increase in free fatty acid and fungal load. This research has provided valuable insight that selecting a suitable variety, shelling machine, and packaging material is crucial for the overall efficiency and high-quality output of large-scale production of shelled Egusi-melon.

Evaluation of growth and yield of cowpea (Vigna unguiculata L.Walp) cultivars and sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L. Moench) with their competitive behavior in cowpea-sorghum intercropping.

The need to increase cowpea production to solve the menace of malnutrition is a global challenge and land limitations have also made intercropping indispensable. Field trials were carried out at the Teaching and Research Farm, Kwara State University, Malete, and National Centre for Agricultural Mechanization (NCAM) Idofian to evaluate the growth and yield of cowpea cultivars and sorghum with their competitive behavior in cowpea-sorghum intercropping. Five cultivars of cowpea (IITA-256, IITA-277, VITAL-5, IT98K-491-4, and IITA-288) were intercropped with sorghum. Sole crops were included in the treatments as a check. The treatments were arranged in a Randomized Complete Block Design and replicated three times. Among the sole, vital-5 cultivar had the highest number of branches and pods per plant and more seeds per pod compared to other cultivars. The cultivar also recorded the highest grain yield 591.30 kg/ha and 530.00 kg/ha respectively, for Malete and NCAM at the sole. At the intercrop, IITA-288 significantly had the least number of branches per plant and took longer days to attain flowering compared to other cultivars. The lowest grain yield at the intercrop was also obtained with this cultivar. Sorghum intercropped with cowpea cultivar IITA-288 was at par with the sole sorghum in all the parameters. The least grain yield of sorghum at the intercrop was obtained in sorghum intercropping with IITA-256 cowpea cultivar. The maximum Land Equivalent Ratio (LER), and Land Equivalent Coefficient (LEC), was obtained with the Vital-5 cultivar. Regardless of location, the competitive ratio (CR) values for IITA-256, IITA-277, and Vital-5 cowpea cultivars were higher than sorghum. The aggressivisity, (A) for these cultivars were also positive for cowpea and negative for sorghum. Although, all the cowpea cultivars demonstrated intercropping advantages in efficient utilization of natural resources intercropping with the Vital-5 cowpea cultivar was superior and could be adopted by the farmer.

Development of an NCAM motorized GRAIN GRUEL (Soy Bean) sieving machine

A survey carried out on conventional or traditional method of sieving wet grains showed that the method consumes time, energy, has low output and efficiency and is also hazardous to health due to low level of hygiene involved. A motorized grain gruel machine was developed at the National Centre for Agricultural Mechanization (NCAM), Ilorin Nigeria. The machine consists of four major units which are hopper, seiver, separator and the discharge unit. The machine’s performance was evaluated at different water volumes (16.5, 18.5 and 20.5 liters) and at three different operating speeds namely 65.3 rpm, 115.0 rpm and 126.0 rpm. The parameters evaluated are; sieving efficiency, through put and output capacity. The data were analyzed using the New Duncan multiple range test (Post Hoc Test) method and linear regression model was used to establish the relationship between the independent variables with the dependent variable, which was optimized using pulp in python version 2.9 frame work. Results show that the machine performed higher at 20.5litres and 126 rpm to a maximum sieving efficiency of 85.08% and 86.48% respectively, but was optimized to the range of 88.35-92.5% in sieving efficiency and 19.42-23.42kg/hr in output capacity. Also the analysis showed that water volume used had more significant effect on the efficiency and other variables such as the throughput and the output capacity respectively, than the operation speed. It was concluded from the results that the machine saved time and energy, reduced material wastage and hazards and therefore is more efficient than the conventional method. It is recommended that further evaluations should be carried out on the machine using a wider variety and species of grains samples.

Tractor Tractive Performance Modelling During Ploughing Operation on a Tropical <i>Alfisol</i>: An R Software Packages Approach

Modern agriculture relies heavily on tractor applications for various operations. Field performance output from this vital machinery influences the overall production process and system efficiency. Tractor tractive performance modelling involves complex analyzes using terramechanics techniques. This study investigated the application of R software packages to model tractor tractive performance during ploughing operations on a tropical alfisol. The research farm at the National Centre for Agricultural Mechanization (NCAM) was used for the field experiment. The experimental design was a nested-factorial under a Randomized Complete Block Design having three replications. The input factors were tractor power size, T, (60, 65 and 70 hp); tyre inflation pressure, P, (83, 124 and 165 kPa); implement configuration, I, (2 and 3 bottoms disc plough); and operational speed, S, (6.31, 7.90, 9.47, 11.05, and 12.63 km/h). Standard procedures were followed to obtain the measured parameters which were statistically analyzed using the R software package. Correlation analysis and analysis of variance (ANOVA) of the measured parameters at 5% significance level were established. Multiple linear regression was used to develop the model which was validated using the 10-fold cross-validation method. The results obtained show a positive correlation of the measured variables with towing force except for the shear stress and cone index. Input factors and their interactions have a significant effect on tractive performance except for T*S, I*S, P*T*I, P*T*S, and T*I*S. The final developed model has seven variables for predicting towing force with a 6.5 percentage error and an average of 0.4735 cross validation root mean square error. The model quality of fit achieved an R2Adj = 0.8754 which satisfactorily described the response variable.

Effectiveness of Melon Shelling Technology and Preference by Rural Women in Nigeria

Few years ago National Centre for Agricultural Mechanization (NCAM) launched melon sheller to reduce burden of obtaining melon oil and cake, and to enhance rural women’s productivity. This study looked at the productivity of promoted melon shelling technology and preference by rural women in Nigeria. Data were gathered from the NCAM workshop and survey of melon processors in Niger State. In the workshop, it was found that time allowed for soaking melon and covering with piece of clothes contributed to the productivity of the sheller. Results from survey revealed that 95.1% of the respondents’ preferred Internal Combustion technology and 90.2% liked electric-driven melon shellers over the manual one. Also, 69.5% obtained the shellers from local fabricators rather than NCAM. The technology led to increased turnout of melon (378kg/hr) and reduced wastages to 1.26kg out of 75.6kg. The study concluded that the promoted melon sheller is efficient and have positive implication on the rural women’s productivity and revenue. The study recommends that the rural women should put the melon sheller into its maximum capacity use. The NCAM should extend training to the local fabricators so that they can improve on the technology most especially in the areas of winnowing and washing of melon kernels.

Content and Investigative Analysis of In-House Journals: A Case Study of National Centre for Agricultural Mechanization (NCAM) Library

Content and Investigative Analysis of In-House Journals: A Case Study of National Centre for Agricultural Mechanization (NCAM) Library

Appraisal of Students Industrial Work Experience Scheme (SIWES) in NCAM, Agricultural Engineering and NCAM Contribution

The study was carried out at national centre for agricultural mechanization (ncam) ilorin kwara state, nigeria. The data on siwes students used was compiled for the period 2011 to 2015 of planning monitoring and evaluation department of the centre. Results from the study revealed that from the 2011 – 2015 the polytechnics recorded the highest of statistical mean of 44.60 and universities has 32.00 there is a very strong significant difference of 0.00 between the tertiary institutions (polytechnics, universities, college of education and federal training centre). The study also revealed that more of engineering students came for siwes program then science and social science with a very high significant difference of 0.01. No much significant difference between female and male students. The statistical mean for duration of 6 months and 1 year is the highest North central has the highest mean of 63.40 followed by south west is 11.20, north west has 1.80, north east has 1.60 while south south has none (0.00). Implying that only students from the tertiary institutions within the proximity of geo – political zone where ncam is sited came for their siwes programme at the national centre for agricultural mechanization.

An Investigative Analysis on the Utilization of the Essential Electronic Agricultural Library (TEEAL) by Researchers: A Case Study of National Centre for Agricultural Mechanization (NCAM) Library.

An Investigative Analysis on the Utilization of the Essential Electronic Agricultural Library (TEEAL) by Researchers: A Case Study of National Centre for Agricultural Mechanization (NCAM) Library.

Calibration of a Manual Cone Penetrometer using a Digital Penetrologger

Cone penetrometers standardized by American Standards for Agricultural Engineering (ASAE) have been major instruments for investigating and quantifying soil compaction. However, the continuous use of penetrometers often introduces errors to the Cone Index (CI) readings obtained from the instruments over time. An ASAE calibrated digital cone penetrometer and a manual penetrometer were tested on a sandy clay loamy soil at the National Centre for Agricultural Mechanization (NCAM), Ilorin, Nigeria; using the ASAE small cone. The CI readings obtained for the two penetrometers were subjected to a statistical t-test. The results showed that the sensitivity of the manual cone penetrometer is comparable to that of the digital penetrologger at depths greater than 12cm as the mean difference showed no significant difference at this depth. However, at depths 0-11cm, there was significant difference in their mean difference; this shows the relative insensitivity of the manual cone penetrometer. The calibration results also showed that the continuous use of the manual cone penetrometer will require a multiplying facto r of 1.165 to get a CI reading close to ideal. Improvement on the manual cone penetrometer will also assist in obtaining CI readings after tillage operations.

CALIBRATION OF A MANUAL CONE PENETROMETER USING A DIGITAL PENETROLOGGER

Cone penetrometers standardized by American Standards for Agricultural Engineering (ASAE) have been major instruments for investigating and quantifying soil compaction. However, the continuous use of penetrometers often introduces errors to the Cone Index (CI) readings obtained from the instruments over time. An ASAE calibrated digital cone penetrometer and a manual penetrometer were tested on a sandy clay loamy soil at the National Centre for Agricultural Mechanization (NCAM), Ilorin, Nigeria; using the ASAE small cone. The CI readings obtained for the two penetrometers were subjected to a statistical t-test. The results showed that the sensitivity of the manual cone penetrometer is comparable to that of the digital penetrologger at depths greater than 12cm as the mean difference showed no significant difference at this depth. However, at depths 0-11cm, there was significant difference in their mean difference; this shows the relative insensitivity of the manual cone penetrometer. The calibration results also showed that the continuous use of the manual cone penetrometer will require a multiplying facto r of 1.165 to get a CI reading close to ideal. Improvement on the manual cone penetrometer will also assist in obtaining CI readings after tillage operations.

Peculiarities in Agricultural Book Publishing: Case Study of National Centre for Agricultural Mechanization (NCAM) Library Collections

Peculiarities in Agricultural Book Publishing: Case Study of National Centre for Agricultural Mechanization (NCAM) Library Collections

Economic sustainability of sheabutter production in Kwara state, Nigeria

Production of sheabutter has the economic potentials in sustaining income generation for rural dwellers. The potentials of shea nuts productivity could only be achieved when technical efficiency of the processing becomes relevant. The study examines the patterns, efficiency and productivity of processing harvested shea nuts/kernels. This study employs cross-section data that were collected from 160 shea nuts processors in Kwara State and production theory that form the basis of Stochastic Production Frontier (SPF) model were used to analyze the efficiency and productivity of shea nuts processing to sheabutter. The result reveals that the processors from improved technique produced 48kg and local processors produced 10kg shea butter each from 50kg shea nuts in a week. Hence, the technical efficiency of the improved shea nuts processors is higher compared to local processors. The quantity of shea nut and fuel are positively important to the production of sheabutter. However, the education contributes positively to the technical efficiency of the shea nuts processors. Even though, local shea nuts processor increase in output with help of family labour and labour efficiency through household size, but the quantity of shea nut is most important. Therefore, awareness and training exercise should be considered by National Centre for Agricultural Mechanization (NCAM) to extend the improved shea nuts processing technique to the rural sheabutter producers.Key Words: Economic sustainability, Sheabutter production, Stochastic frontier model

Performance evaluation of NCAM developed coffee depulping machine

Despite the fact that Coffee (Coffeaarabica) is one of the most consumed beverages in the world and it is second largest traded commodity after petroleum (Mussato et al., 2011). It is highly economical but its production in Nigeria is fast declining as a result of inadequate processing technologies necessary to help eliminate the high level of drudgery associated with manual dehulling and polishing of coffee beans (Gbabo et al., 2013). For the purpose of eliminating the drudgery, increasing both the quantity and quality of coffee beans production, the National Centre for Agricultural Mechanization (NCAM) Ilorin designed and developed a machine for depulping freshly harvested coffee and a machine for polishing dried coffee beans.

Effect of Tillage Operations on Soil Moisture Contents in the Southern Guinea Savanna Ecological Zone of Nigeria

An experimental farm plot was set up at the National Centre for Agricultural Mechanization (NCAM), kilometer 12 Ilorin-Idofian Road to investigate the effect of various agronomic operations (mound, ridge and plough tillage) on soil moisture content of varying depth intervals of 0 - 15 cm, 15 - 30 cm, 30 - 45 cm and 45 - 60 cm respectively. The experiment was conducted between year 2007 and 2009. Samples were taken on weekly basis from various depths using hand screw auger. The percentage moisture was determined by oven drying oil sample to a constant weight at the temperature of 105°C. The difference between the initial weight and weight after oven drying was calculated and the percentage determined. Weekly data generated were grouped on monthly basis and the means calculated. Seasonal values were also calculated. ANOVA and the Post Hoc multiple comparison were employed to investigate variations in soil moisture content between tillage systems and within the four soil depths. The result showed mound tillage to be the driest and ridge was then wettest of all the tillage system considered. The difference between varying intervals of seach tillage became more pronounced between depth intervals of 0 - 15 cm and 15 - 30 cm. Generally, the result of ANOVA indicates seasonal variation in soil moisture between the three tillage methods at all depths considered. Again the result of the Pos Hoc multiple comparison shows that variation in soil moisture content between the 3 tillage systems in wet and in dry season in not significant because the p value > 0.05. Suggestions were made on the way forward towards achieving a self sufficient food production status.

Analysis of Fresh Fish Marketing in Ngaski Local Government Area of Kebbi State, Nigeria

The study examined the marketing of fresh fish in Ngaski Local Government Area of Kebbi State, Nigeria. With the aid of a sampling frame, proportionate random sampling technique was used to select fish marketers. Thus, a total of one hundred and ten (110) fish marketers constitute the sample size for the study. Structured questionnaire was used to collect data for the respondents. Data analysis was carried out using descriptive statistics, marketing efficiency, marketing margin and T-test statistics. Result of the study revealed that about 26% of fresh fish marketers in the study area were within the age range of 20 to 30 years, fresh fish marketing in the study area is dominated by males (71.9%). Furthermore, about 83% of fresh fish marketers in the study area were married; majority (85.4%) of fresh fish marketers in the study area were literate. About 72% of fresh fish marketers in the study area had their monthly income ranging from N2, 000 to N20, 000. Also revealed from the result, 38.1% of fresh fish marketers in the study area had fresh fish marketing experience of 6 to 10 years. Result further showed that marketing margin of an average fresh fish marketer was N190 and the percentage marketing margin was 30%. The marketing efficiency of fresh fish in the study area was 0.582 and percentage marketing efficiency was 58%. Majority (63.64%) of fresh fish marketers buy fish directly from the fishermen and retailed it to consumers. On the problems faced by fresh fish marketers in the study area, 58.2% reported that fish spoilage was the major problem of fresh fish marketing. There was significant difference between the retail price and the river bank price of fresh fish in the study area. It could be concluded that fresh fish marketing in the study area was profitable and that fresh fish marketing in the study area was inefficient. It is therefore recommended that research institute such as national centre for agricultural mechanization should develop simple, affordable and easily adoptable equipment for fresh fish storage and preservation to avoid spoilage and loss.