National Ban Research Articles

Monitoring landed seahorse catch in a changing policy environment

ESR Endangered Species Research Contact the journal Facebook Twitter RSS Mailing List Subscribe to our mailing list via Mailchimp HomeLatest VolumeAbout the JournalEditorsSpecials ESR 27:95-111 (2015) - DOI: https://doi.org/10.3354/esr00643 Monitoring landed seahorse catch in a changing policy environment M. Yasué1,*, A. Nellas2, H. Panes2, A. C. J. Vincent3 1Quest University Canada, 3200 University Blvd., Squamish, BC V8B 0N8, Canada 2Project Seahorse Foundation for Marine Conservation, Gaviola Compound, Maria Theresa Village II, Barangay Guadalupe 6000, Philippines 3Fisheries Centre, University of British Columbia, 2202 Main Mall, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, Canada *Corresponding author: maiyasue@gmail.com ABSTRACT: For many small-scale, tropical reef fisheries, landed catch may be the only data that can be monitored to assess the impacts of management. This is true for seahorses Hippocampus comes that are obtained as part of a multi-species fishery in the Philippines. Here, because seahorses are locally rare and depleted, it is difficult to attain large enough sample sizes to detect changes over time using underwater surveys. We assessed changes in seahorse sales at 2 sites, from 1996 and 2005 respectively to 2010. The study period covered local and national conservation initiatives that could affect seahorses and dependent fisheries: establishment of marine reserves (1998 onwards), a community-led minimum size limit (MSL: 2002 to 2004) and a national ban on seahorse fishing (from 2004). The MSL appeared to lead to increased sizes of seahorses in trade, as hoped, while the national ban led, perversely, to more fishers selling seahorses. Declines in overall take after 2004 or 2007 (depending on the site) is likely linked to declining seahorse populations rather than reduced effort, especially when one considers the increased number of fishers and the price per seahorse. It is notable that communities decided on the MSL, whereas the government imposed the ban on capturing seahorses. In this small-scale, multi-species fishery, monitoring a wide range of variables intensively over a relatively long time scale allowed us to identify key differences between small-scale and industrial fisheries management, and also to document the biological and social consequences of management action for a depleted, threatened species. KEY WORDS: CITES · MPAs · Marine reserve · Exploitation · Fishing ban · Philippines · Size distribution · Minimum size limits Full text in pdf format Supplementary material NextCite this article as: Yasué M, Nellas A, Panes H, Vincent ACJ (2015) Monitoring landed seahorse catch in a changing policy environment. Endang Species Res 27:95-111. https://doi.org/10.3354/esr00643 Export citation RSS - Facebook - Tweet - linkedIn Cited by Published in ESR Vol. 27, No. 2. Online publication date: February 18, 2015 Print ISSN: 1863-5407; Online ISSN: 1613-4796 Copyright © 2015 Inter-Research.

Anthropocentric Climate Change and Violent Conflict: Evidence Review and Policy Recommendations

Violent conflicts, freshwater related risks, mass migration, food and human insecurity, in vulnerable developing countries are among the key global threats posed by climate change, according to the UN’s Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) 2014 report. The admonitions concur with the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP, 2007) and Ban Ki Moon (2007) assertions that the conflict in Darfur was as a result of resource scarcity and climate change. This essay reviews the evidence in academic literature, newspaper, articles, journals, blogs, books which links climate change and violent conflicts and then proceeds to use evidence from Kenya, Nigeria and Rwanda to argue that current evidence linking climate change and violent conflict is counterfactual and filled with numerous disagreements. This signals the need for current policy debates to be informed by measured views of vulnerability to conflict, causes of specific conflicts and local responses to climate change rather than on simplistic, unsubstantiated gloomy assertions that prove no statistically significant link between climate change and violent conflict.

HUMAN RIGHTS AND MEDIA: THE EXPERIENCE OF THE COMMISSION OF INQUIRY ON NORTH KOREA

Even in oppressive countries, those responsible for abuses of human rights normally perform their deeds of commission and omission in private, away from the glare of publicity. Publicity and news attention encourage supporters of global human rights to address the violations of human rights of peoples and individuals. They speak up and demand action. Secrecy is a cloak for terrible crimes and violations.This is why, in the current international situation, those with responsibility for the United Nations’ efforts to advance universal human rights, and to expose violators, have increasingly looked to the media (especially international media) to support their efforts. Between the time in the 1990s when I discharged a mandate as Special Representative of the Secretary-General for Human Rights in Cambodia (1993-6) and the more recent time in which I served as Chair of the Commission of Inquiry (COI) on alleged human rights violations in the Democratic Peoples’ Republic of Korea (DPRK) (North Korea) (2013-14), I noticed a significant change in the engagement of United Nations personnel with the media. A connection with media became more intensive, more time consuming and more professional. Moreover, it is supported from the top of the Organisation. The Secretary-General of the United Nations (Ban Ki-moon), the High Commissioners for Human Rights, other agency heads and mandate-holders have become much more willing to engage with media and much more skilful in doing so. By this I mean not only local newspapers, radio and television interviews but also international media and the new social networks, blogs, Reddit and the internet generally. Together these media can bring news, information and opinions of UN experts on human rights to an audience far wider than that which, in the past, had access to UN reports on human rights concerns.

Data flow: Vodafone reveals phone monitoring numbers - but many nations ban statistics on surveillance

Earlier this year, the international mobile phone carrier Vodafone Group released figures showing how often it had intercepted a call or supplied call metadata at the request of a government. The most interesting aspect was not the raw numbers of requests (which can yield very misleading figures due to differences in market share and what a request covers in various jurisdictions), but how willing governments were to allow Vodafone to disclose the information. This is illustrated via a graphic.

Flavored tobacco use among Canadian students in grades 9 through 12: prevalence and patterns from the 2010-2011 youth smoking survey.

IntroductionThis study examined patterns of use of flavored tobacco products in a nationally generalizable sample of Canadian students in grades 9 through 12 after the implementation of a national ban on certain flavored tobacco products.MethodsData from the 2010–2011 Youth Smoking Survey, a nationally generalizable sample of Canadian students in grades 9 through 12 (n = 31,396), were used to examine tobacco product use. Logistic regression models were used to examine differences in use of flavored tobacco products (cigarettes, pipes, little cigars or cigarillos, cigars, roll-your-own cigarettes, bidis, smokeless tobacco, water pipes, and blunt wraps) by sociodemographic and regional characteristics.ResultsApproximately 52% of young tobacco users used flavored products in the previous 30 days. Flavored tobacco use varied by product type and ranged from 32% of cigarette smokers reporting menthol smoking to 70% of smokeless tobacco users reporting using flavored product in the previous 30 days. The percentage of last-30-day users who used flavored tobacco was significantly higher in Quebec than in Ontario and significantly higher among youths who received weekly spending money than among those who received no money.ConclusionMore than half of tobacco users in grades 9 through 12 in Canada use flavored tobacco, despite a national ban on certain flavored tobacco products.

Socioeconomic differentials in the immediate mortality effects of the national Irish smoking ban.

BackgroundConsistent evidence has demonstrated that smoking ban policies save lives, but impacts on health inequalities are uncertain as few studies have assessed post-ban effects by socioeconomic status (SES) and findings have been inconsistent. The aim of this study was to assess the effects of the national Irish smoking ban on ischemic heart disease (IHD), stroke, and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) mortality by discrete and composite SES indicators to determine impacts on inequalities.MethodsCensus data were used to assign frequencies of structural and material SES indicators to 34 local authorities across Ireland with a 2000–2010 study period. Discrete indicators were jointly analysed through principal component analysis to generate a composite index, with sensitivity analyses conducted by varying the included indicators. Poisson regression with interrupted time-series analysis was conducted to examine monthly age and gender-standardised mortality rates in the Irish population, ages ≥35 years, stratified by tertiles of SES indicators. All models were adjusted for time trend, season, influenza, and smoking prevalence.ResultsPost-ban mortality reductions by structural SES indicators were concentrated in the most deprived tertile for all causes of death, while reductions by material SES indicators were more equitable across SES tertiles. The composite indices mirrored the results of the discrete indicators, demonstrating that post-ban mortality decreases were either greater or similar in the most deprived when compared to the least deprived for all causes of death.ConclusionsOverall findings indicated that the national Irish smoking ban reduced inequalities in smoking-related mortality. Due to the higher rates of smoking-related mortality in the most deprived group, even equitable reductions across SES tertiles resulted in decreases in inequalities. The choice of SES indicator was influential in the measurement of effects, underscoring that a differentiated analytical approach aided in understanding the complexities in which structural and material factors influence mortality.

Men Who Defaulted in the Greatest Game of All: Sport, Conscientious Objectors and Military Defaulters in New Zealand 1916–1923

During the Great War most New Zealand sports bodies restricted their competitions in some way. A rhetoric against ‘sporting shirkers’ proliferated and was reinforced when the New Zealand government introduced military conscription in 1916 and adopted a trenchant attitude against any who were unwilling to serve. After the Great War the New Zealand Returned Soldier's Association (RSA) requested that regional and national sports bodies ban known conscientious objectors and military defaulters from all sporting competitions. Subsequent actions by sports bodies were largely if not wholly symbolic in that the number of conscientious objectors was small and there is scant evidence of any individual actually being removed from sporting competition. But they are nevertheless a potent expression of the nexus between sporting prowess and blood sacrifice that developed throughout the British Empire during and after the Great War. But not all followed the wishes of the RSA. Some were concerned that an onus was being put on sporting administrators to fulfil a role that was the responsibility of the government, while militant trade unionists took exception to such punitive treatment of those who had had the courage to stand by their convictions.

Effect of smoke-free legislation on perinatal and child health: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Smoke-free legislation has the potential to reduce the substantive disease burden associated with second-hand smoke exposure, particularly in children. We investigated the effect of smoke-free legislation on perinatal and child health.We searched 14 online databases from January, 1975 to May, 2013, with no language restrictions, for published studies, and the WHO International Clinical Trials Registry Platform for unpublished studies. Citations and reference lists of articles of interest were screened and an international expert panel was contacted to identify additional studies. We included studies undertaken with designs approved by the Cochrane Effective Practice and Organisation of Care that reported associations between smoking bans in workplaces, public places, or both, and one or more predefined early-life health indicator. The primary outcomes were preterm birth, low birthweight, and hospital attendances for asthma. Effect estimates were pooled with random-effects meta-analysis. This study is registered with PROSPERO, number CRD42013003522.We identified 11 eligible studies (published 2008-13), involving more than 2·5 million births and 247,168 asthma exacerbations. All studies used interrupted time-series designs. Five North American studies described local bans and six European studies described national bans. Risk of bias was high for one study, moderate for six studies, and low for four studies. Smoke-free legislation was associated with reductions in preterm birth (four studies, 1,366,862 individuals; -10·4% [95% CI -18·8 to -2·0]; p=0·016) and hospital attendances for asthma (three studies, 225,753 events: -10·1% [95% CI -15·2 to -5·0]; p=0·0001). No significant effect on low birthweight was identified (six studies, >1·9 million individuals: -1·7% [95% CI -5·1 to 1·6]; p=0·31).Smoke-free legislation is associated with substantial reductions in preterm births and hospital attendance for asthma. Together with the health benefits in adults, this study provides strong support for WHO recommendations to create smoke-free environments.Thrasher Fund, Lung Foundation Netherlands, International Paediatric Research Foundation, Maastricht University, Commonwealth Fund.

Impact of tobacco control policies in hospitals: Evaluation of a national smoke-free campus ban in Spain

IntroductionOn January 2, 2011, the Spanish government passed a new smoking law that banned smoking in hospital campuses. The objective of this study was to evaluate the implementation of smoke-free campuses in the hospitals of Catalonia based on both airborne particulate matter and observational data. MethodsThis cross-sectional study included the hospitals registered in the Catalan Network of Smoke-free Hospitals. We measured the concentration of particulate matter < 2.5 µm in μg/m3 at different locations, both indoors and outdoors before (2009) and after (2011) the implementation of the tobacco law. During 2011, we also assessed smoke-free zone signage and indications of smoking in the outdoor areas of hospital campuses. ResultsThe overall median particulate matter < 2.5 µm concentration fell from 12.22μg/m3 (7.80–19.76μg/m3) in 2009 to 7.80μg/m3 (4.68–11.96μg/m3) in 2011. The smoke-free zone signage within the campus was moderately implemented after the legislation in most hospitals, and 55% of hospitals exhibited no indications of tobacco consumption around the grounds. ConclusionsAfter the law, particulate matter < 2.5 µm concentrations were much below the values obtained before the law and below the annual guideline value recommended by the World Health Organization for outdoor settings (10μg/m3). Our data showed the feasibility of implementing a smoke-free campus ban and its positive effects.

NEWS OVERVIEW: Researchers develop alternatives to methyl bromide fumigation

finding alternatives to News overview Researchers develop alternatives to methyl bromide fumigation T Brad Hanson ime is running out for California grow- ers who still use methyl bromide. This soil fumigant is just short of a miracle for pest management — a single treatment before plant- ing controls nematodes, diseases and weeds. But methyl bromide is also a health and environmental hazard, and is being phased out under an inter- national ban. To help growers make the inevitable transition, UC and U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) researchers just spent 5 years testing methyl bromide alternatives for key western crops with a $5 million grant from the USDA. The program’s research is presented in the current and the coming October–December issue of California Agriculture. “One goal of the program was to identify methyl bromide alternatives that were immediately use- ful and economically feasible,” says Greg Browne, a USDA plant pathologist at UC Davis who was project coordinator for the research program. “Another was to foster development of non-fumi- gant strategies for managing soilborne pests.” Growers have used methyl bromide since the 1960s to effectively sterilize fields before planting. But this toxic gas is so volatile that more than half of the amount injected into soil can eventually end up in the air. When methyl bromide rises high in the atmosphere, it contributes to thinning of the ozone layer (the layer that shields us from ultravio- let radiation). In 2005, developed countries banned methyl bromide under the Montreal Protocol, an international treaty signed in 1987 to protect the stratospheric ozone layer. Even so, the treaty still allows limited use of methyl bromide in certain cases today. These in- clude critical use exemptions for strawberries, almonds and other crops that lack alternatives that are both effective and affordable, as well as quar- antine and preshipment exemptions for rootstock, Alternative fumigants such as 1,3-D may be the best option in the short term for nursery stock, which must be completely nematode-free to meet California’s phytosanitary certification requirements. bulbs and other nursery crops that could spread pests to new places. This authorized use shrinks each year, however, and will soon end. In the United States, recent methyl bromide use is down sharply from the 1991 baseline of 28,000 tons. The nationwide exemption for 2013 is 2.2% of baseline, or about 620 tons, and in 2014 this will drop further to 1.7% of baseline, or about 480 tons. The exemp- tion for 2015, if any, is unknown. For comparison, California alone used 3,550 tons of methyl bromide in 2004, the year before it was banned. Other restrictions on methyl bromide use in- clude seasonal bans to cut air pollution, and the requirement of buffer zones to protect people’s health. While methyl bromide depletes the protec- tive ozone in the stratosphere, it adds to ground- level ozone or smog. Thus, its use is prohibited during the warm months in parts of the state with poor air quality, including the San Joaquin Valley and Ventura County. Moreover, methyl bromide– free buffers are required around sites that are hard to evacuate, such as schools, hospitals and jails, because high concentrations of this fumigant can cause lung, eye and skin damage as well as respira- tory and central nervous system failure. Finding alternatives Most of the dwindling U.S. methyl bromide allotment goes to California and Florida, so the USDA Agricultural Research Service launched twin research initiatives to help find alternatives for growers in these regions. “The programs focused on the most important needs in the west and south- east,” says Browne. “The crop mixes were based on the views of growers and other stakeholders.” The western program, called the Pacific-Area Wide Integrated Methyl Bromide Alternatives Program, includes production crops such as grapes, strawber- ries and tree nuts as well as nursery crops such as cut flowers, forest trees and sweet potatoes. The South Atlantic Area Extension Program for Methyl Bromide Alternatives, the southeast program, in- cludes crops such as strawberries, tomatoes, cucum- bers and peppers. Finding alternatives is a challenge because methyl bromide sterilizes soil so well. “Methyl bro- mide is a one-shot control. It does so much that it’s hard to find a true replacement,” says Brad Hanson, a UC Cooperative Extension (UCCE) weed special- ist at UC Davis. In addition, the best alternative varies, depending partly on the primary benefit a particular crop gets from methyl bromide. For ex- ample, the biggest problems for production crops may be diseases or weeds. But the biggest problem http://californiaagriculture.ucanr.edu • JULY–SEPTEMBER 2013

Assessing the Impact of the National Smoking Ban in Indoor Public Places in China: Evidence from Quit Smoking Related Online Searches

BackgroundDespite the tremendous economic and health costs imposed on China by tobacco use, China lacks a proactive and systematic tobacco control surveillance and evaluation system, hampering research progress on tobacco-focused surveillance and evaluation studies.MethodsThis paper uses online search query analyses to investigate changes in online search behavior among Chinese Internet users in response to the adoption of the national indoor public place smoking ban. Baidu Index and Google Trends were used to examine the volume of search queries containing three key search terms “Smoking Ban(s),” “Quit Smoking,” and “Electronic Cigarette(s),” along with the news coverage on the smoking ban, for the period 2009–2011.FindingsOur results show that the announcement and adoption of the indoor public place smoking ban in China generated significant increases in news coverage on smoking bans. There was a strong positive correlation between the media coverage of smoking bans and the volume of “Smoking Ban(s)” and “Quit Smoking” related search queries. The volume of search queries related to “Electronic Cigarette(s)” was also correlated with the smoking ban news coverage.InterpretationTo the extent it altered smoking-related online searches, our analyses suggest that the smoking ban had a significant effect, at least in the short run, on Chinese Internet users’ smoking-related behaviors. This research introduces a novel analytic tool, which could serve as an alternative tobacco control evaluation and behavior surveillance tool in the absence of timely or comprehensive population surveillance system. This research also highlights the importance of a comprehensive approach to tobacco control in China.

Fuel-wood energy properties of Prosopis juliflora and Prosopis pallida grown in Baringo District, Kenya

Kenya depends on fuel-wood for cooking and heating in most households. Over 80% of both rural and urban households in the country use fuel wood for cooking. These Prosopis plant species provide excellent fuel wood. These plants were introduced in the arid and semi-arid areas of Kenya in the early 1970s as a source of woodfuel and also for the rehabilitation of degraded lands. Prosopis is a prolific seeder and has invasiveness behaviour that results in a number of social, ecological and economic concerns to the local communities, and challenges to development partners. Now with the Kenyan Forest Policy 2005 which proposes strategies and actions to enhance sustainable and efficient production of wood-fuel, Prosopis species is a suitable candidate. The Kenya Forest Service is now issuing permits allowing charcoal burning of Prosopis species in an effort to manage and curb uncontrolled spread. There is a national ban on charcoal making from unsustainable wood sources which include the woodlands and natural forest reserves. The aim of this project was to determine the energy values from Prosopis fuel-wood. The moisture content, volatile matter, ash content, carbon content and calorific values were determined from Prosopis fuel-wood plants. The calorific values for Prosopis juliflora and Prosopis pallida wood are 4.952 and 4.862 Kcal respectively. The calorific values for P. juliflora and P. pallida charcoal are 7.854 and 7.797 Kcal, respectively.

Reductions in Cardiovascular, Cerebrovascular, and Respiratory Mortality following the National Irish Smoking Ban: Interrupted Time-Series Analysis

BackgroundPrevious studies have shown decreases in cardiovascular mortality following the implementation of comprehensive smoking bans. It is not known whether cerebrovascular or respiratory mortality decreases post-ban. On March 29, 2004, the Republic of Ireland became the first country in the world to implement a national workplace smoking ban. The aim of this study was to assess the effect of this policy on all-cause and cause-specific, non-trauma mortality.MethodsA time-series epidemiologic assessment was conducted, utilizing Poisson regression to examine weekly age and gender-standardized rates for 215,878 non-trauma deaths in the Irish population, ages ≥35 years. The study period was from January 1, 2000, to December 31, 2007, with a post-ban follow-up of 3.75 years. All models were adjusted for time trend, season, influenza, and smoking prevalence.ResultsFollowing ban implementation, an immediate 13% decrease in all-cause mortality (RR: 0.87; 95% CI: 0.76–0.99), a 26% reduction in ischemic heart disease (IHD) (RR: 0.74; 95% CI: 0.63–0.88), a 32% reduction in stroke (RR: 0.68; 95% CI: 0.54–0.85), and a 38% reduction in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) (RR: 0.62; 95% CI: 0.46–0.83) mortality was observed. Post-ban reductions in IHD, stroke, and COPD mortalities were seen in ages ≥65 years, but not in ages 35–64 years. COPD mortality reductions were found only in females (RR: 0.47; 95% CI: 0.32–0.70). Post-ban annual trend reductions were not detected for any smoking-related causes of death. Unadjusted estimates indicate that 3,726 (95% CI: 2,305–4,629) smoking-related deaths were likely prevented post-ban. Mortality decreases were primarily due to reductions in passive smoking.ConclusionsThe national Irish smoking ban was associated with immediate reductions in early mortality. Importantly, post-ban risk differences did not change with a longer follow-up period. This study corroborates previous evidence for cardiovascular causes, and is the first to demonstrate reductions in cerebrovascular and respiratory causes.

Why ban the sale of cigarettes? The case for abolition

The cigarette is the deadliest artefact in the history of human civilisation. Most of the richer countries of the globe, however, are making progress in reducing both smoking rates and...

‘Zhonghua’ tobacco advertisement in Shanghai: a descriptive study

ObjectiveTo document tobacco advertising practices of a popular, high-grade, domestic cigarette in China across a broad spectrum of channels.MethodsMedia monitoring and direct observations were conducted to assess tobacco advertisements for...

'To Regulate,' Not 'To Prohibit': Limiting the Commerce Power

Today it is taken for granted that Congress’s power “to regulate . . . Commerce among the several States” includes the power to shut interstate markets down. That is why, for example, Congress is understood to have the power to ban the possession and use of marijuana, even though twenty states have expressed contrary preferences, either for the medicinal or recreational use of the drug. This Article argues that as a matter of constitutional history and theory both, this familiar assumption about congressional power is wrong. First, the Article demonstrates that the original understanding, which prevailed for over one hundred years, did not grant Congress the power to ban markets. Congress could pass “helper” statutes to facilitate state choices, and it could even ban particular goods (such as diseased cattle) “in service” of the interstate market; but it could not simply prohibit all commerce in products of which it disapproved. Second, the Article demonstrates that although this understanding changed following the 1903 Supreme Court decision in Champion v. Ames, none of the reasons supporting the change justify Congress possessing the power today. Finally, this Article examines theoretical justifications for congressional power grounded in law and economics and constitutional theory to suggest that the power “to regulate” interstate commerce should not be understood to include the power to prohibit it. The argument has implications for national bans on articles and activities such as interstate gambling, drugs, raw milk products and assault weapons.

The effectiveness of policies for reducing dietary trans fat: a systematic review of the evidence

To systematically review evidence for the effectiveness of policies, including self-regulation, aimed at reducing industrially produced trans fatty acids (TFAs) in food. The Medline, Embase and Cinahl databases were searched to identify peer-reviewed articles examining the effect of TFA policies. In addition, the first 20 pages of Google searches were examined for articles from the grey literature. A study was included if: (i)it was empirical and conducted in a "real-world" setting (i.e. modelling studies were excluded); (ii)it examined a TFA policy involving, for example, labelling, voluntary limits or bans; and (iii)it examined a policy's effect on TFA levels in food, people's diets, blood or breast milk. Twenty-six articles met the inclusion criteria: 5 involved voluntary self-regulation; 8, labelling alone; 4, labelling and voluntary limits; 5, local bans and 4, national bans. Overall, the TFA content of food decreased with all types of policy intervention. In general, saturated fat levels increased or decreased, depending on the product type, and total fat content remained stable. National and local bans were most effective at eliminating TFAs from the food supply, whereas mandatory TFA labelling and voluntary TFA limits had a varying degree of success, which largely depended on food category. Policies aimed at restricting the TFA content of food were associated with significant reductions in TFA levels, without increasing total fat content. Such policies are feasible, achievable and likely to have an effect on public health.

The Effect of Comprehensive Smoking Bans in European Workplaces.

Many European countries have recently implemented comprehensive smoking bans to reduce exposure to tobacco smoke in public places and all indoor workplaces. We use a difference-in-differences approach and comparable microdata for a number of European countries to evaluate the impact of national comprehensive smoking bans on workers' perceived health. Results show that the introduction of comprehensive smoking bans has a significant effect on the probability of both exposure to smoke and work-related respiratory problems. We also highlight unintended effects in terms of mental distress. The impact across countries is shown to vary with the degree of strictness of the bans.

“To Regulate,” Not “To Prohibit”: Limiting the Commerce Power

Today it is taken for granted that Congress’s power “to regulate . . . Commerce among the several States” includes the power to shut interstate markets down. That is why, for example, Congress is understood to have the power to ban the possession and use of marijuana, even though twenty states have expressed contrary preferences, either for the medicinal or recreational use of the drug. This Article argues that as a matter of constitutional history and theory both, this familiar assumption about congressional power is wrong. First, the Article demonstrates that the original understanding, which prevailed for over one hundred years, did not grant Congress the power to ban markets. Congress could pass “helper” statutes to facilitate state choices, and it could even ban particular goods (such as diseased cattle) “in service” of the interstate market; but it could not simply prohibit all commerce in products of which it disapproved. Second, the Article demonstrates that although this understanding changed following the 1903 Supreme Court decision in Champion v. Ames, none of the reasons supporting the change justify Congress possessing the power today. Finally, this Article examines theoretical justifications for congressional power grounded in law and economics and constitutional theory to suggest that the power “to regulate” interstate commerce should not be understood to include the power to prohibit it. The argument has implications for national bans on articles and activities such as interstate gambling, drugs, raw milk products and assault weapons.

The ICRC and the changing humanitarian landscape

Ban Ki-moon, Secretary-General of the United Nations Ban Ki-moon is the eighth Secretary-General of the United Nations. He received his Bachelor’s degree in International Relations from Seoul National University and a Master’s degree in Public Administration from the Kennedy School of Government at Harvard University. At the time of his election as Secretary-General, Mr Ban was his country’s Minister of Foreign Affairs and Trade. His thirty-seven years of service with the Ministry included postings in New Delhi, Washington D.C., and Vienna, and responsibility for a variety of portfolios, including Foreign Policy Adviser to the President, Chief National Security Adviser to the President, Deputy Minister for Policy Planning, and Director-General of American Affairs. Mr Ban took office on 1 January 2007. He was unanimously re-elected by the General Assembly in June 2011 and will continue to serve until December 2016.