National Athletic Trainers' Association Research Articles

Gender Equity in Athletic Training

The demands of the athletic training profession are unique, but concerns of women members of the National Athletic Trainers’ Association (NATA) are similar to those of women in other male-dominated occupations. Although the NATA membership is roughly equal in terms of gender (46% of the NATA membership are women), men are predominantly found in supervisory positions (59%), compared with 37% of women in other leadership roles. 1 Subordinate groups are often excluded from positions of power or leadership. In corporate America, 95–97% of senior managers are men, 2 and in academic medicine, gender bias is more frequently reported by female faculty (77%) than by male faculty (30%). 3 Gender-biased behaviors, policies, or actions that adversely affect work by leading to disparate treatment or creation of an intimidating environment are gender discrimination. 3 Our objective is to identify gender-biased issues in the athletic training workforce using the mutedgroup theory and to describe strategies for success for women who choose athletic training as a career.

Learning Professionalism in Athletic Training Education

Objective: Student learning of professionalism in athletic training education programs (ATEPs) can be varied and even elusive. The purpose of this article is to define professionalism and discuss its development in athletic training students. Background: Medical professions have studied extensively how students learn professionalism. However, with some studies reporting up to 90 different associated characteristics, no set definition of professionalism has been adopted. Students may learn professional behaviors in the classroom and the clinic. Research in medical education reports that a majority of this learning occurs in the clinical environment. Description: There are numerous ways to promote the learning of professionalism in athletic training students. After engaging each student personally in this pursuit, techniques such as communicating the mission and code of ethics of the National Athletic Trainers ' Association (NATA), clearly stating expectations the ATEP holds of students ' professional behavior, providing a variety of learning opportunities in different clinical settings, carefully selecting approved clinical instructors (ACIs), and using self-assessment and reflection are a few of the techniques recommended. The importance of the role of ACIs in the development of professional behaviors in athletic training students is stressed. Advantages: Without purposefully including the learning of professionalism in ATEP curriculums (the classroom and clinical experiences), students are at risk of not being prepared to represent and promote athletic training at the highest levels within the allied health professions.

A Descriptive Study of Athletic Training Students Perception of Effective Mentoring Roles.

Context: Mentoring relationships are commonly thought to promote the learning of a professional role. Mentors can perform a variety of roles and possess many different personal characteristics, but there is limited literature related to athletic training students’ perceptions of effective mentoring roles and characteristics. Objective: To explore who athletic training students identify as a mentor and describe the students’ perceptions of the mentoring role and personal characteristics. Design: An online survey was used to collect students’ perceptions. Setting: The study was initiated from a large mid-western university and included a national sample of athletic training students with published e-mail addresses. Participants: Student members of the National Athletic Trainers’ Association (NATA) with a published electronic-mail address (N=3285) were surveyed and a total of 807 students accessed the online survey for a return rate of 24.56%. Main Outcome Measure(s): Likert scale survey items measured the extent to which students agreed with the questions; descriptive statistics, specifically frequencies, means and standard deviations, were used in the analysis.Results: The majority of students identified a current practitioner as their mentor. Role modeling, communication, feedback, encouragement, listening, providing advice, support and challenges were roles associated with effective mentoring. Students generally disagreed that similar ethnicity and gender were important personal characteristics in a mentoring relationship. Conclusions: Practitioners play a key role in mentoring athletic training students; though the mentoring role of practitioners is multidimensional. The effectiveness of a mentoring relationship can likely be improved by provided consistent availability and contact, by caring about a student's development, and by taking adequate time to communicate effectively. While doing this, athletic training practitioners should be cognizant that athletic training students do not necessarily value the mentoring roles of providing tutoring, friendship, confrontation, information delivery and problem solving assistance in comparison to the other mentoring roles evaluated. Furthermore, the focus should be on the development of a professional and nurturing relationship that is not overly confrontational but is challenging

Knowledge, Attitudes, and Behaviors Regarding Hydration and Fluid Replacement of Collegiate Athletes

The purpose of this study was to determine collegiate athletes' knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors concerning hydration and fluid replacement. A survey containing questions pertaining to demographics and knowledge, attitude, and behavior on hydration and fluid replacement was distributed to the athletes during team meetings and practices. A total of 139 out of 171 (81.3%) athletes participated in the study. The mean age of the athletes was 19.8 y. The mean score for knowledge, attitude, and behavior was 13.9 +/-1.8, 9.8 +/- 2.2, and 12.4 +/- 2.5, respectively, with higher scores indicating positive hydration knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors. Significant positive correlation was observed between knowledge, attitude, and behavior scores (P < 0.05). Significant difference (P < 0.05) was observed in the reported hydration behaviors between skilled (11.79 +/- 2.08) and endurance (12.71 +/- 2.63) athletes. Most athletes correctly answered the general hydration questions on the survey, but the majority did not correctly answer statements in regards to National Athletic Trainers' Association (NATA) and the American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM) position stands and lacked knowledge regarding appropriate use of sports drink. The results of this study identify specific areas of education for athletes with regards to hydration.

The Prevalence of Disordered Eating among Adolescent Female Athletes in Four High School Sports

0259 The prevalence of disordered eating behaviors (DE) has been primarily reported among collegiate and other adult athletes. Few studies have reported the prevalence and characteristics of disordered eating among female high school athletes. Since recent studies suggest that DE may be related to menstrual irregularity and low bone mineral density, it is important to determine the prevalence of DE among female athletes from a variety of high school sports. PURPOSE: To determine the prevalence and describe characteristics of DE among female athletes in four high school sports. METHODS: The Eating Disorder Examination Questionnaire (EDE-Q) was administered to 190 girls participating in four spring season high school sports. Chi-square tests were used to determine differences in characteristics and pathogenic behaviors of DE among the four sports. RESULTS: An overall prevalence of 39.5% was found among the female athletes with swimming/diving reporting the highest prevalence of DE. Significant differences were found for the subscales of weight concern and the global score (mean of all four subscales).TableOverall, the female athletes reported use of the following pathogenic behaviors: binging (12.6%), vomiting (6.8%), laxatives (5.3%), and diuretics (2.1%). No significant differences were found among pathogenic behaviors between the four sports. CONCLUSION: In general, girls participating in these high school sports reported similar levels of DE. The results of this study suggest that at the high school level, higher estimates of DE might not be confined to sports considered aesthetic or endurance. Future studies should examine all girls' high school sports to assess whether other sports have similar estimates of DE behaviors. Supported by a grant from the National Athletic Trainers Association

Influence of Sport on Bone Mineral Density of Female High School Athletes

0261 Bone mineral density (BMD) of collegiate and other adult athletes has been extensively reported, however, few data exist describing the bone health of female high school athletes. Considering recent studies demonstrating the importance of physical activity for bone accrual during adolescence, it is of interest to determine the BMD of athletes from a variety of high school sports with different mechanical loading characteristics. PURPOSE: To determine total and regional BMD of female high school athletes comprising four sports. METHODS: BMD of the proximal femur (total hip), spine (L1-L4) and total body was determined by DXA in 92 female athletes (age 15.8±1.3 yr) in athletes from: track & field (n = 59), swimming (n = 12), softball (n = 15), and lacrosse (n = 6). Data for softball and lacrosse were combined for analyses after determining there were no differences in age, weight, age of menarche, or BMD between the two. ANCOVA with alpha adjusted to p<0.017 for multiple (3) analyses was used to determine significance. RESULTS:TableTrack & field athletes weighed significantly less than all other athletes, but age of menarche (12.4 ± 1.2 yr) was similar in athletes from all 4 sports. After controlling for body weight, which accounted for 23 to 38% of the variance in BMD, there was no sport effect on BMD at any measurement site (p>0.017). However, BMD at all sites tended to be lowest in swimmers. Z-scores expressed as percentages of reference data indicated that BMD of the athletes ranged from 99 to 109% of their age-matched peers. CONCLUSION: The bone mass of these female high school seasonal athletes, on average, was approximately 5% greater than that of their age-matched peers. The clinically important trend toward lower BMD at the proximal femur of swimmers suggests that those athletes may benefit by supplementing their swim training with impact activity. Longitudinal data will help clarify specific effects of mechanical loading regimens conferred by various sports, as well as other factors known to affect bone mass. Supported by a grant from the National Athletic Trainers Association

Perspectives on lightning safety risk management in sport and recreational activities

Lightning is typically considered the most dangerous weather hazard for those who engage in outdoor sport and recreational activities. It is estimated that lightning strikes somewhere in the world about 100 times every second and kills approximately 1,000 people a year worldwide (Long, 1999). The risk associated with lightning is both a safety concern and a liability concern for sport and recreation managers. Management is often faced with difficult decisions regarding the implementation of lightning safety policies and procedures. The purpose of this article is to address the issue of implementing lightning safety policies and procedures through an analysis and discussion of legal concerns relevant to lightning safety, emerging technology for predicting and monitoring lightning, current recommendations and guidelines for lightning safety policies and procedures, and lightning-related research. Professional associations that have published and/or adopted specific management directed lightning safety policies and procedures are (1) the National Athletic Trainers Association (NATA), (2) the American Meteorological Society (AMS), (3) the National Federation of State High Schools' Association (NFSHSA), (4) the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA), and (5) the United States Golf Association (USGA). Recommendations from these groups are summarized and implications for lightning safety education are provided.

Psychological Aspects of Athletic Injuries as Perceived by Athletic Trainers

This study investigated the perceptions of certified athletic trainers concerning their attitudes, beliefs, and application of a variety of psychological strategies and techniques used in the treatment and rehabilitation of athletic injuries. The Athletic Training and Sport Psychology Questionnaire (ATSPQ) was adapted from instruments developed by Wiese, Weiss, and Yukelson (1991) and Brewer, Van Raalte, and Linder (1991). The ATSPQ, a letter of introduction, and a self-addressed stamped envelope were distributed to 1,000 certified athletic trainers randomly selected from the membership database maintained by the National Athletic Trainers’ Association (NATA). Only 482 (48.2%) of these questionnaires returned were usable. 47% of athletic trainers who responded believe that every injured athlete suffers psychological trauma. 24% reported that they have referred an athlete for counseling for situations related to their injury, and 25% reported that they have a sport psychologist as a member of their sports medicine team. This study concludes that future education of athletic trainers should address the psychological aspects of injury treatment as well as the development of a sport psychology referral network.

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Athletic Training and Conditioning

As a handbook for the trainer in service and the young person preparing for a career in physical education, this book should serve a useful purpose. Its coverage of the care of injuries is confined to the contributions of the trainer, apart from the treatment responsibilities of the physician. These contributions include recognition, immediate care, and proper referral of injuries, as well as carrying out certain aspects of follow-up care as directed by the physician. Appropriate attention is given throughout to preventive procedures both specifically and as a general point of emphasis. Physicians should be interested in the suggestions made concerning the qualifications of the athletic trainer. These, taken from the recommendations of the National Athletic Trainers Association, suggest that the trainer in substance should have (1) undergraduate qualifications entitling him to a teaching certification in physical education, with the needed emphasis on the prevention and management of athletic injuries,

The place of the trainer in modern athletics

T HE background of athIetic training is Iong and iIIustrious. It had its start with the ancient Greek and Roman athIetic contests, as evidenced in our archeoIogica1 museums. Artists of the time found much of their inspiration in scenes on the gymnasium, palestra, track and fieId. Vases, our most important record, reflect the various phases of the Iife of the athIete. Bronze and marble scuIptures, gems and coins aIso add to our knowIedge. There are many instances recorded on these vases of the aryballos (oil flask), strigi1 (instrument for removing oil and dust from the body after exercise) and sponges [I]. Other specific scenes shown on vases incIude an attendant drawing a thorn from an athlete’s foot [2] and two scenes entitled “WrestIers with their trainer in the palestra.” (Fig. I.) Another, perhaps the first recorded instance of a trainer instructing the principles of fair play, is entitled “Trainer beating with his stick a youth who is gouging his opponent’s eye” [d]. From the time the ancient Greeks pitched their tents on the pIains of the EIis in the dim centuries of the past and brought together the young men of their Iand in the first of all 01,vmpic games, unti1 their modern reviva1 in 1896 and down through recent times, the trainer has been an important factor in keeping the athlete in condition for top performance. Through the years the duties and qualifications of the trainers have changed in the same manner that the three R’s of “reading, ‘riting and ‘rithmetic ” have changed to the present “rockets, radiation, and rock and roI1.” The crude methods of the oId-time trainers have become a thing of the past. The day of “the rubber,” the know-it-a11 jack-of-aII-trades and master of none, is over. Following WorId War I the athIetic trainer as a specialist in the prevention of injurg made his appearance in intercoIIegiate athletics. It was at this time, 1917, that Dr. S. E. BiIik pubIished the first text devoted excIusiveIy to athIetic training and the treatment of athIetic injuries [$$I. Other exceIlent publications have appeared since [T-ro]. The trainer today must have a sound understanding of the human body and be a keen and unbiased observer of the body in action. He must know a good dea1 about physioIogy, kinesioIogy, psychoIogy, hygiene, massage, conditioning, therapeutic exercise, diet and the various modalities of physica therapy. In addition, he is the father confessor of the squad. In a recent study “Red” Burnett, Trainer a.t Utah State University [II], found that very IittIe research had been done on the history and background of athIetic training. He further stated that there were many hooks and pamphlets on training methods but none eIaborated on the duties of the trainer or what his qualifications shouId be. I am happy to report that steps have been taken to remedy this situation by the National Athletic Trainers Association (N.A.T.A.) [12]. This organization was founded In Kansas City, Missouri, on June 24, 1950. Its objectives are : I. To advance, encourage and improve the athletic training profession in a11 its phases and to promote a better working relationship among those persons interested in the problems of training. 2. To deveIop further the abiIity of each of its members. 3. To better serve the common interest of its members by providing means for a free exchange of ideas within the profession. 4. To enabIe members to become better acquainted personaIIy through casual good feIIowship. At the present time there are six classes of membership: active, associate, aIIied, advisory,