National Aeronautics And Space Administration Missions Research Articles

(Invited) Ester and Carbonate-Based Low Temperature Electrolytes for Operation of Lithium-Ion Batteries in Extreme Environments for NASA Missions

NASA continues to have an interest in developing high specific energy and high power rechargeable batteries that can operate well over a wide temperature range. Potential applications that could be enabled or enhanced by such technology include: (i) future Mars and Lunar landers, (ii) future Mars and Lunar rovers, (iii) small robotic missions, and (iv) future planetary aerial vehicles, where high specific energy, high power and wide operating temperature range is desired. Future missions to some of the distant icy moons of Jupiter and Saturn are also anticipated to benefit from improved ultra-low temperature rechargeable batteries with high specific energy.1 A number of terrestrial applications, including automotive and aviation Li-ion batteries, also benefit from having wide temperature range capability. To meet these needs, the Electrochemical Research, Technology, and Engineering Group at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) has developed a number of low temperature Li-ion electrolytes utilizing various approaches. Broadly speaking, the performance targets of this work are to provide operation over the temperature range of +60oC to -60oC (delivering over 100 Wh/kg at -40oC at reasonable rates).This paper will provide an overview of the low temperature electrolyte development activities that have taken place at JPL, with a focus on enabling ultra-low temperature operation for extreme environments. The electrolytes evaluated included blends which contain elements of various approaches, including (i) the use of ester co-solvents, (ii) low ethylene carbonate content-based blends, (iii) the use of electrolyte additives, and (iv) the use of mixed lithium electrolyte salts. Experimental studies were performed utilizing three-electrode cells to determine the influence that the electrolyte type has upon the electrode kinetics as a function of temperature. A number of electrochemical techniques were employed to study these cells, including Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy (EIS), Tafel polarization, and linear micro-polarization.Improved low temperature capability has been demonstrated in small and large capacity prototype cells with a number of chemistries (i.e., NCO, NCA, NMC, LCO and LFP-based chemistries), including the ability to deliver high specific energy down to -60oC, good charge acceptance at low temperature, and high-power capability at -40oC. Prototype cells incorporating JPL developed electrolytes were obtained from a number of vendors, including (i) Eagle Pitcher Technologies-Yardney Division, (ii) Enersys/Quallion, LLC, (iii) E-One Moli Energy Ltd., (iv) Saft America, and (iv) Navitas/A123. Emphasis was devoted to establishing the charge acceptance characteristics of the cells at very low temperatures, especially below -20oC. Given that lithium plating when charging at low temperatures is a known degradation mode of Li-ion cells in general, attention was focused upon characterizing the conditions in which its likelihood may be more pronounced, determining the influence of electrolyte type, and attempting to detect its occurrence indirectly.Early generations of electrolytes have been utilized in a number of NASA missions, including the 2003 Mars Exploration Rover, 2007 Phoenix Lander, 2011 Mars Science Laboratory (MSL) Curiosity Rover, 2018 Mars InSight Lander, and a JPL/CSUN CubeSat.1-5 Previous work has also targeted improved low temperature performance of Li-ion cells for automotive applications. Current work is focused primarily upon providing higher specific energy coupled with good power characteristics at very low temperatures. Studies have also been performed demonstrating operational capability down to -90oC in some systems, and survival capability to temperatures as low as -135oC.ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The work described here was carried out at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, under contract with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). The information in this document is pre-decisional and is provided for planning and discussion only. REFERENCES M. C. Smart, B. V. Ratnakumar, R. C. Ewell, S. Surampudi, F. Puglia, and R. Gitzendanner, Electrochimica Acta, 268, 27-40 (2018). M. C. Smart, D. Muthulingam, M. E. Lisano, S. F. Dawson, R. B. Shaw, B. T. White, A. Buonanno, C. Deroy, and R. Gitzendanner, 236th Meeting of the Electrochemical Society (ECS), Atlanta, Georgia, October 15, 2019. M. C. Smart, F. C. Krause, and J. -P. Jones, CREB Bi-Annual Meeting, University of Maryland, December 10, 2021. K. B. Chin, G. B. Bolotin, M. C. Smart, S. Katz, J. A. Flynn, N. K. Palmer, E. J. Brandon, and W. C. West, IEEE A&E Systems Magazine, 36 (5), 24-36 (2021). M. C. Smart, B. V. Ratnakumar, F. Charlie Krause, William C. West and Erik J. Brandon, 2021 Space Power Workshop (Virtual), Pasadena, CA, April 19, 2021. M. C. Smart, F. C. Krause, J. -P. Jones, C. L. Fuller, J. A. Schwartz, and B. V. Ratnakumar, 2018 Conference on Advanced Power Systems for Deep Space Exploration, Pasadena, CA, October 22-24, 2018.

Methods for Evaluating Li/CFx Primary Cell Performance and Depth-of-Discharge

Primary batteries have been used in past deep space exploration missions, providing power for periods of several hours to several days of mission operations [1,2]. Future missions planned by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) will require more advanced primary batteries to provide power to missions for up to 60 days [3].The Li/CFx primary battery chemistry has a high specific energy, low self-discharge rate, and a relatively wide operating temperature range which makes it a suitable power source for extended mission durations in deep space, particularly for applications involving low to moderate discharge rates [4]. Li/CFx batteries have not been used in any NASA missions to date, and are now being developed for the Europa Lander mission concept [5]. An extensive evaluation of EaglePicher’s D-sized Li/CFx cells is underway, to benchmark the calendar life performance, radiation tolerance, and performance under different temperatures and currents.One of the unique characteristics of the Li/CFx chemistry is the extremely flat voltage plateau during cell discharge (Figure 1) [6, 7]. As the cell approaches end of life, its voltage quickly drops prior to reaching the 1.5V recommended discharge limit. While the cell’s stable voltage is a key component to the high specific energy of this chemistry, it also makes it challenging to accurately predict the battery’s remaining capacity. Premature battery depletion is a risk to mission success, and improved methods for determining depth-of-discharge (DOD) in this unique cell chemistry are of great interest.A pulse-discharge test method is developed and implemented to investigate the change in cell direct current internal resistance (DCIR) during discharge. Varied responses based on the discharge rate are observed and will be discussed. The resulting data are analyzed for possible correlation with DOD, along with changes in the cell voltage over various segments of the discharge curve. This talk discusses the test method and results achieved using the pulse-discharge test method.

Performance analysis of near-earth, lunar and interplanetary optical communication links

The performance of near-Earth, lunar and interplanetary laser optical communications is investigated by using simulation models which were successfully verified in previous projects. The simulation models consider typical mission design parameters like transmit power and operation wavelength for the optical laser transmitters, different apertures of the optical telescope, varying distances between the Earth ground station and the spacecraft terminals, Geiger-mode avalanche photodiodes (APD) or superconducting nanowire single photon detection (SNSPD) receivers, atmospheric disturbances like scintillation and absorption, background noises for the uplink and downlink and appropriate pulse position modulation (PPM) orders. Typical design parameters are those of published ESA (European Space Agency) and NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration) missions. The investigations of laser optical communications for various system parameters and different distances between the Earth ground station and the spacecraft could also help to achieve an overview of free space and deep space optical communications for different orbit constellations for future missions with laser optical communication links.

Systematic Integration of Applications into the Surface Biology and Geology (SBG) Earth Mission Architecture Study

AbstractThe Surface Biology and Geology (SBG) concept is the first National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) Earth mission to develop and implement systematic integration of science application needs at the architecture study stage. Prior NASA mission concept and planning activities presumed that science measurement needs would encompasss application measurement needs and so did not explicitly evaluate and include applications at this stage. However, the effort presented here identified, documented and integrated application needs that would not have been included by considering research science needs only. First, a low latency of no greater than 24 hr was identified as the optimal target to enable the maximum number of applications and was then carried through into all SBG candidate architectures. Second, many applications expressed needs around improved spatial and temporal resolution. While increased spatial resolution would not be possible under current cost and technology considerations, the need for improved resolution for temporal sampling helped drive and bolster discussions with international partners such as the European Space Agency, Italian Space Agency, and Centre National D’Etudes Spatiales. Lastly, we found that the applications and science were synergistic with one another; for example, mission concept decisions to consider additional measurement features were driven by both high relevance application and science priorities, and in particular, evapotranspiration for agriculture and high temperature features for fires and geologic hazards. This paper discusses the process and key contributions originating from the SBG Applications Working Group and how they shaped SBG at the architecture study stage. This stage in the mission planning considers the trade space of spacecraft instruments and architectures, and evaluates which formulations are suitable candidates for SBG. The approach described here may be utilized as a framework for applications and science to inform future NASA satellite mission studies.

Characterization of Spacesuit Associated Microbial Communities and Their Implications for NASA Missions.

BackgroundCrewed National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) missions to other solar system bodies are currently being planned. One high-profile scientific focus during such expeditions would be life detection, specifically the discovery of past or present microbial life, if they exist. However, both humans and associated objects typically carry a high microbial burden. Thus, it is essential to distinguish between microbes brought with the expedition and those present on the exploring planets. Modern spacesuits are unique, customized spacecraft which provide protection, mobility and life support to crew during spacewalks, yet they vent, and the mobility of microbes through spacesuits has not been studied.ResultsTo evaluate the microbial colonization of spacesuits, NASA used an Extravehicular Activity swab kit to examine viable microbial populations of 48 samples from spacesuits using both traditional microbiological methods and molecular sequencing methods. The cultivable microbial population ranged from below the detection limit to 9 × 102 colony forming units per 25 cm2 of sample and also significantly varied by the location. The cultivable microbial diversity was dominated by members of Bacillus, Arthrobacter, and Ascomycota. However, 16S rRNA-based viable bacterial burden ranged from 105 to 106 copies per 25 cm2 of sample. Shotgun metagenome sequencing revealed the presence of a diverse microbial population on the spacesuit surfaces, including Curtobacterium and Methylobacterium from across all sets of spacesuits in high abundance. Among bacterial species identified, higher abundance of Cutibacterium acnes, Methylobacterium oryzae, and M. phyllosphaerae reads were documented.ConclusionThe results of this study provide evidence that identical microbial strains may live on the wrist joint, inner gauntlet, and outer gauntlet of spacesuits. This raises the possibility, but does not confirm that microbial contaminants on the outside of the suits could contaminate planetary science operations unless additional measures are taken. Overall, these data provide the first estimate of microbial distribution associated with spacesuit surfaces, which will help future mission planners develop effective planetary protection strategies.

Considerations for Implementing Presidential Memorandum-20 Guidelines for Nuclear Safety Launch Authorization for Future Civil Space Missions

National Security Presidential Memorandum-20 (NSPM-20) (Launch of Spacecraft Containing Space Nuclear Systems) provides updated guidelines for launch authorization for three categories of proposed launches of spacecraft with space nuclear systems: Federal government civil space including the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), Federal government defense and intelligence, and commercial. These space nuclear systems provide power, heat, and/or propulsion to the spacecraft. NSPM-20 requires a rigorous, risk-informed safety analysis and launch authorization process. The launch approval process of previous NASA missions each took several years and cost multimillion dollars. NSPM-20 provides guidelines to potentially streamline the process and improve cost and schedule. This technical note examines three NSPM-20 guidelines on a future example interplanetary mission (EIM) as to their potential implementation feasibility for three accident categories: Earth gravity assist reentry, solid propellant fires, and flight termination system design. It is found that the safety technology for these accidents were constantly improved over the last several missions, but in some cases may not be adequate for direct use in the EIM’s launch authorization process.

Biological safety in the context of backward planetary protection and Mars Sample Return: conclusions from the Sterilization Working Group

AbstractThe National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) and the European Space Agency (ESA) are studying how samples might be brought back to Earth from Mars safely. Backward planetary protection is key in this complex endeavour, as it is required to prevent potential adverse effects from returning materials to Earth's biosphere. As the question of whether or not life exists on Mars today or whether it ever did in the past is still unanswered, the effort to return samples from Mars is expected to be categorized as a ‘Restricted Earth Return’ mission, for which NASA policy requires the containment of any unsterilized material returned to Earth. NASA is investigating several solutions to contain Mars samples and sterilize any uncontained Martian particles. This effort has significant implications for both NASA's scientific mission, and the Earth's environment; and so special care and vigilance are needed in planning and execution in order to assure acceptance of safety to Earth's biosphere. To generate a technically acceptable sterilization process across a wide array of scientific and other stakeholders, on 30–31 January 2019, 10–11 June 2019 and 19–20 February 2020, NASA informally convened a Sterilization Working Group (SWG) composed of experts from industry, academia and government to assess methods for sterilization and inactivation, to identify future work needed to verify these methods against biological challenges, and to determine their feasibility for implementation on robotic spacecraft in deep space. The goals of the SWG were:(1)Understand what it means to sterilize and/or inactivate Martian materials and how that understanding can be applied to the Mars Sample Return (MSR) mission.(2)Assess methods for sterilization and inactivation, and identify future work needed to verify these methods.(3)Provide an effective plan for communicating with other agencies and the public.This paper provides a summary of the discussions and conclusions of the SWG over these three workshops. It reflects a consensus position based on qualitative discussion of how agencies might approach the problem of sterilization of Mars material. The SWG reached a consensus that sterilization options can be considered on the basis of biology as we know it, and that sterilization modalities that are effective on terrestrial materials and organisms should be part of the MSR planetary protection strategy. Conclusions pointed to several industry standards for sterilization to include heat, chemical, UV radiation and low-heat plasma. Technical trade-offs for each sterilization modality were discussed while simultaneously considering the engineering challenges and limitations for spaceflight. Future work includes more in-depth discussions on technical trade-offs of sterilization modalities, identifying and testing Earth analogue challenge organisms and proteinaceous molecules against chosen modalities, and executing collaborative agreements between NASA and external working group partners to help close data gaps, and to establish strong, scientifically grounded sterilization and inactivation standards for MSR.

Ester and Carbonate-Based Low Temperature Electrolytes in High Specific Energy and High Power 18650 Li-Ion Cells for Future NASA Missions

NASA continues to have an interest in developing high specific energy and high power rechargeable batteries that can operate well over a wide temperature range. Concepts for applications that could be enabled or enhanced by such technology include: (i) future Mars landers, (ii) future Mars rovers, including a possible Mars Sample Return mission, and (iii) future planetary aerial vehicles, where high specific energy, high power and wide operating temperature range is desired. Future missions to some of the distant icy moons of Jupiter and Saturn are also anticipated to benefit from improved ultra-low temperature rechargeable batteries with high specific energy.1 To meet these needs, the Electrochemical Technologies Group (ETG) at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) has developed a number of low temperature Li-ion electrolytes utilizing various approaches. In general, the performance targets of this work is to provide operation over the temperature range of +40oC to -60oC (delivering up to 150 Wh/kg at -40oC at reasonable rates). In addition, continuous operation at low temperatures is desired, so the cells should possess good charge characteristics without undesirable lithium plating.In previous collaborative work with E-One Moli Energy Ltd.1, we have demonstrated excellent specific energy at -40oC (> 150 Wh/kg) at low rates (C/100) in custom 18650-sized Li-ion cells containing JPL-developed electrolytes. The electrolytes investigated included all-carbonate-based low EC-content electrolyte formulations, as well as solutions containing ester co-solvents with various additives.2-6 In an extension of this work, we have investigated the performance of a number of Li-ion electrolytes optimized for low temperature performance in custom high specific energy cells as well high power prototype 18650-size cells manufactured by E-One Moli. The electrolytes evaluated included blends which contain elements of various approaches, including (i) ester co-solvents (such as methyl propionate, methyl butyrate, and propyl butyrate), (ii) the use of electrolyte additives (such as VC and FEC), and (ii) the use of mixed lithium electrolyte salts. In contrast to the previous work that was focused on low rate operation at high temperature, emphasis was placed on characterizing the cells using more aggressive discharge rates over a range of temperatures.To evaluate the high specific energy and high power 18650-size cells, extensive discharge rate characterization was performed over a wide temperature range (down to -80oC). Emphasis was also devoted to establishing the charge acceptance characteristics of the cells at very low temperatures, especially at -40oC. Given that lithium plating when charging at low temperatures is a known degradation mode of Li-ion cells in general, attention was focused upon characterizing the conditions in which its likelihood may be more pronounced and attempting to detect its occurrence indirectly. These results will be compared to baseline commercial off the shelf (COTS) cells. DC current interrupt impedance measurements have also been performed as a function of temperature in an attempt to more fully understand the impact of electrolyte type upon the low temperature performance for the cells.ACKNOWLEDGEMENTThe work described here was carried out at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, under contract with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) and supported by an internal JPL Research and Technology Development (R&TD) Fund. The information in this document is pre-decisional and is provided for planning and discussion only.

Airborne Radiometry for Calibration, Validation, and Research in Oceanic, Coastal, and Inland Waters

Present-day ocean color satellite sensors, which principally provide reliable data on chlorophyll, sediments, and colored dissolved organic material in the open ocean, are not well suited for coastal and inland water studies for a variety of reasons, including coarse spatial and spectral resolution plus challenges with atmospheric correction. National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) airborne mission concepts tested in 2011, 2013, 2017, and 2018 over Monterey Bay, CA, and nearby inland waters have demonstrated the feasibility of improving airborne monitoring and research activities in case-1 and case-2 aquatic ecosystems through the combined use of state-of-the-art above- and in-water measurement capabilities. These competencies have evolved through time to produce a sensor-web approach: imaging spectrometer, microradiometers, and a sun photometer (airborne) with their analogous algorithms, and with corresponding in-water radiometers and ground-based sun photometry. The NASA airborne instrument suite and mission concept demonstrations, leveraging high-quality above- and in-water data, significantly improves the fidelity as well as the spatial and spectral resolution of observations for studying and monitoring water quality in oceanic, coastal, and inland water ecosystems. The goal of this series of projects was to develop and fly a portable airborne sensor suite for NASA science missions focusing on a gradient of water types from oligotrophic to turbid waters addressing the challenges of an optically complex coastal ocean zone and inland waters. The airborne radiometry in this range of aquatic conditions and sites has supported improved results of studies of water quality and biogeochemistry and provides capabilities for research areas such as ocean productivity and biogeochemistry; aquatic impacts of coastal landscape alteration; coastal, estuarine, and inland waters ecosystem productivity; atmospheric correction; and regional climate variability.

Ester and Carbonate-Based Low Temperature Electrolytes in High Specific Energy and High Power 18650 Li-Ion Cells for Future NASA Missions

NASA continues to have an interest in developing high specific energy and high power rechargeable batteries that can operate well over a wide temperature range. Concepts for applications that could be enabled or enhanced by such technology include: (i) future Mars landers, (ii) future Mars rovers, including a possible Mars Sample Return mission, and (iii) future planetary aerial vehicles, where high specific energy, high power and wide operating temperature range is desired. Future missions to some of the distant icy moons of Jupiter and Saturn are also anticipated to benefit from improved ultra-low temperature rechargeable batteries with high specific energy.1 To meet these needs, the Electrochemical Technologies Group (ETG) at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) has developed a number of low temperature Li-ion electrolytes utilizing various approaches. In general, the performance targets of this work is to provide operation over the temperature range of +40oC to -60oC (delivering up to 150 Wh/kg at -40oC at reasonable rates). In addition, continuous operation at low temperatures is desired, so the cells should possess good charge characteristics without undesirable lithium plating.In previous collaborative work with E-One Moli Energy Ltd.1, we have demonstrated excellent specific energy at -40oC (> 150 Wh/kg) at low rates (C/100) in custom 18650-sized Li-ion cells containing JPL- developed electrolytes. The electrolytes investigated included all-carbonate-based low EC-content electrolyte formulations, as well as solutions containing ester co-solvents with various additives. 2-6 In an extention of this work, we have investigated the performance of a number of Li-ion electrolytes optimized for low temperature performance in custom high specific energy cells as well high power prototype 18650-size cells manufactured by E-One Moli. The electrolytes evaluated included blends which contain elements of various approaches, including (i) ester co-solvents (such as methyl propionate, methyl butyrate, and propyl butyrate), (ii) the use of electrolyte additives (such as VC and FEC), and (ii) the use of mixed lithium electrolyte salts. In contrast to the previous work that was focused on low rate operation at high temperature, emphasis was placed on characterizing the cells using more aggressive discharge rates over a range of temperatures.To evaluate the high specific energy and high power 18650-size cells, extensive discharge rate characterization was performed over a wide temperature range (down to -80oC). Emphasis was also devoted to establishing the charge acceptance characteristics of the cells at very low temperatures, especially at -40oC. Given that lithium plating when charging at low temperatures is a known degradation mode of Li-ion cells in general, attention was focused upon characterizing the conditions in which its likelihood may be more pronounced and attempting to detect its occurrence indirectly. These results will be compared to baseline commercial off the shelf (COTS) cells. DC current interrupt impedance measurements have also been performed as a function of temperature in an attempt to more fully understand the impact of electrolyte type upon the low temperature performance for the cells. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The work described here was carried out at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, under contract with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) and supported by an internal JPL Research and Technology Development (R&TD) Fund. The information in this document is pre-decisional and is provided for planning and discussion only. 1. M. C. Smart, F. C. Krause, J. –P. Jones, L. D. Whitcanack, , B. V. Ratnakumar, E. J. Brandon, and M. Shoesmith, 2016 Prime Pacific Rim Meeting on Electrochemical and Solid-State Science, Honolulu, HI, October 2-7, 2016.2. M. C. Smart, B. V. Ratnakumar, K. B. Chin, and L. D. Whitcanack, J. Electrochem. Soc., 157(12), A1361-A1374 (2010).3. M. C. Smart, B. L. Lucht, S. Dalavi, F. C. Krause, and B. V. Ratnakumar, J. Electrochem. Soc., 159 (6), A739-A751 (2012).4. M. C. Smart, B. V. Ratnakumar, F. C. Krause, L. D. Whitcanack, E. A. Dewell, S. F. Dawson, R. B. Shaw, S. Santee, F. J. Puglia, A. Buonanno, C. Deroy, and R. Gitzendanner, NASA Aerospace Battery Workshop, Huntsville, Alabama, November 17-19, 2015.5. M. C. Smart, et. al., 2010 Power Sources Conference, Las Vegas, NV, June 16, 2010, Pages 191-194.6. (a) M. C. Smart, et. al., 214th Meeting of the Electrochemical Society, Honolulu, HI, Oct. 12-17, 2008. (b) M. C. Smart, A. S. Gozdz, L. D. Whitcanack, and B. V. Ratnakumar, 220th Meeting of the Electrochemical Society, Boston, MA, October 11, 2011.

Effectiveness of Teacher-Led Nutritional Lessons in Altering Dietary Habits and Nutritional Status in Preschool Children: Adoption of a NASA Mission X-Based Program.

The preschool years are a sensitive period for the development of food preferences that will affect physical growth and life-long health. The promotion of healthy eating and nutritional status was achieved by adapting the US National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) Mission X (MX) Program among young children in South Korea. The intervention program was delivered by nutritional experts and class teachers over 10 weeks. Children from 37 school classes (n = 534) from 7 daycares and kindergartens were randomized into a control group (CG, n = 280) and an intervention group (IG, n = 254). Parents were surveyed for their children’s characteristics and nutrition quotient (NQ) at baseline and at the 10-week follow-up. At baseline, 18.8% (boys: 18.9%; girls: 18.8%) of the subjects were overweight or obese (body mass index ≥ 85th percentile). After the intervention, the mean differences in various anthropometric measures did not differ significantly between the groups in a linear regression model adjusted for age, sex, and type of school. The NQ grades were significantly higher in the IG than the CG after the intervention (p = 0.000). In summary, the 10-week South Korean MX program improved the eating behaviors and nutrition status of young children. A further multisector prevention program is needed to prevent childhood obesity in young children.

The Impact of Radiation Exposure upon Lithium-Ion Batteries for Future Planned NASA Missions to Europa

NASA is planning to launch a mission entitled the Europa Clipper which is intended to provide a detailed reconnaissance of the Jovian icy moon Europa. With one major objective being to determine the habitability of life on the moon, the mission will involve multiple flybys and will utilize a number of instruments, including an ice-penetrating radar that is intended to measure the thickness of the icy shell and possibly detect a subsurface ocean. As one would expect due to distances involved, the destination of Europa presents a number of technical challenges for the spacecraft, including being exposed to high levels of radiation and extreme temperature environments. Furthermore, NASA has stringent planetary protection protocols that must be followed that involves sterilizing the spacecraft to to avoid any potential contamination. As described previously1,2, the current power subsystem architecture for the Europa Clipper mission involves the use of solar arrays, power management electronics, and a rechargeable lithium-ion battery.3 With respect to the Li-ion battery, we are planning to utilize a “small cell” approach, which will consist of multiple high specific energy small 18650-size Li-ion cells that are assembled into large capacity multi-string batteries. Due to the excellent cell-to-cell reproducibility and proper cell matching, individual cell monitoring and balancing circuitry is not required with this approach. NASA has previously utilized this approach on a number of past missions, including Kepler, Aquarius, and SMAP. To meet the challenging mission requirements, we identified leading candidate cell chemistries that are projected to meet the mission requirements. However, in contrast to these previous missions which have utilized heritage Sony HCM 18650 cells, we are planning on using much higher specific energy cells to reduce the overall spacecraft mass. Given that we would like to use a new cell chemistry, it necessitates performing a cell qualification activity. Furthermore, the candidate cell chemistry must be demonstrated to have good cycle and storage life characteristics, especially since the cruise period to Europa is extremely long and could potentially be over 6.5 years in duration, depending upon the launch vehicle selected. To reduce the bio-burden of spacecraft components, dry heat microbial reduction (DHMR) is typically employed, which involves subjecting the samples to exposure at high temperatures (in excess of 150oC). However, since Li-ion cell technology will rapidly degrade at high temperatures, this methodology is not acceptable and alternative methods of achieving sterility must be adopted. The preferred method with respect to the Li-ion batteries is to subject them to high levels of gamma-irradiation, which has previously been demonstrated to have a minimal to low impact upon the performance characteristics.4,5 To assess the impact that would be sustained by exposure to γ-rays prior to launch to comply with planetary protection protocols, as well as to address the radiation exposure during the course of the mission, we have exposed a number of Li-ion cells and a large capacity battery module to gamma-irradiation (60Co source) at very high levels (up to 20 Mrad) to evaluate the potential impact. In order to demonstrate the impact of irradiation, a number of performance characterization tests were implemented on samples subjected to varying levels of γ-rays (either 12 Mrad or 20 Mrad), including: (i) 100% DOD cycling under various conditions, (ii) charge and discharge rate characterization over a range of temperatures, (iii) module level testing and, (vi) verification of proper functionality of internal safety protection devices. As will be discussed, good performance has been obtained with candidate high specific energy Li-ion cells, and minimal capacity loss was observed after being subjected to high levels of radiation. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The work described here was carried out at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, under contract with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) and supported by the Europa Clipper Mission. A. Ulloa-Severino, G. A. Carr, D. J. Clark, S. M. Orellana, R. Arellano, M.C. Smart, B.V. Ratnakumar, A. Boca, and S. F. Dawson. October 5, 2016. F. C. Krause, A. Lawrence, M. C. Smart, S. F. Dawson, A. Ulloa-Severino, and B. V. Ratnakumar, 227th ECS Meeting, May 28, 2015. M. C. Smart, F. C. Krause, A. Lawrence, B. V. Ratnakumar, A. Ulloa-Severino, and R. C. Ewell, 232th ECS Meeting, October 5, 2017. B. V. Ratnakumar, M. C. Smart, L. D. Whitcanack, E. D. Davies, and K. B. Chin, J. Electrochem. Soc., 151 (4), A652- A659 (2004). B. V. Ratnakumar, M. C. Smart, L. D. Whitcanack, E. D. Davies, K. B. Chin, F. Deligiannis, and S. Surampudi, J. Electrochem. Soc., 152 (2), A357- A363 (2005).

NASA's CubeSat Launch Initiative: Enabling broad access to space

CubeSats are playing an increasingly larger role in exploration, technology demonstrations, scientific research and educational investigations at the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). These miniature satellites provide a low-cost platform for NASA missions, including planetary space exploration; Earth observation; and technology demonstrations such as cutting-edge laser communications, energy storage, in-space propulsion and autonomous movement capabilities. They also provide educators with an inexpensive means to engage students in all phases of satellite development, operation and exploitation through real world, hands-on research and development experience on NASA-funded and non-NASA funded opportunities. These advancements in turn are propelling an emerging and fast-growing commercial industry to support a wide application user base.For the past seven years, NASA has enabled educational institutions, universities, non-profit organizations and agency field centers to launch these small research satellites through the CubeSat Launch Initiative (CSLI) for Educational Launch of Nanosatellite (ELaNa) missions. Launch opportunities are made available via existing launch services of government payloads on previously planned launches, commercial missions or as International Space Station deployments, as well as dedicated CubeSat launches from the newly selected Venture Class Launch Services contracts. CSLI establishes Cooperative Research and Development Agreements with satellite development partners, which supports NASA's emphasis on public-private partnerships.Since the inception of the CubeSat Launch Initiative, NASA has selected over 162 CubeSat missions from 93 unique organizations and has launched 66 CubeSats into orbit on seventeen ELaNa Missions. This paper provides a status and overview of missions and community involvement, launch vehicles, and technology and science focus areas. It also details the methods employed by NASA to deliver CSLI, requirements for participation, and next steps for the initiative.

A kindergarten-based child health promotion program: the Adapted National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) Mission X for improving physical fitness in South Korea.

Effective and sustainable intervention programs are needed to promote physical activity (PA) in children. To adapt the NASA Mission X: Train Like an Astronaut program for use with South Korean children, and to evaluate its feasibility and effectiveness for promoting children's physical fitness. Children 5 years old (n = 212) and their parents were recruited from three kindergartens in three cities to participate in a 6-week intervention program in fall 2014. We assessed the children's PA and related changes, and parental changes in attitude and beliefs, after participation in the intervention. Girls reported less PA than boys (40.7 vs. 59.0, p < 0.01). Children with a normal body mass index (BMI) were more likely to be active than underweight children (< 10 percentile) or overweight children (⩾ 85 percentile). After the intervention, about one-half of the children had increased their level of PA (49.4%), increased interest in PA (59.1%) and found psychological need satisfaction in exercise (52.6%). The majority of parents became aware of the necessity of childhood PA (94.2%), their child's PA capability (64.3%), and the relationship of PA with their children's self-esteem (79.9%). The adapted NASA Mission X program was feasible and effective in promoting PA in kindergarteners, and also improved their parents' attitude and beliefs about children's PA in South Korea. This study provided a model for promoting childhood health through child care and educational settings.

The Long Space Age: The Economic Origins of Space Exploration from Colonial America to the Cold War by Alexander MacDonald

Reviewed by: The Long Space Age: The Economic Origins of Space Exploration from Colonial America to the Cold War by Alexander MacDonald Thomas C. Lassman (bio) The Long Space Age: The Economic Origins of Space Exploration from Colonial America to the Cold War. By Alexander MacDonald. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2017. Pp. 272. Hardcover $35. After the triumph of the Apollo lunar program in the late 1960s, public enthusiasm and political support for spaceflight ebbed. The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) downsized and confined its human spaceflight activities to low earth orbit as budgets shrank and the Cold War drew to a close. Without a replacement for the post-Apollo space shuttle, a successful but costly and accident-prone technology retired in 2011, NASA has relied instead on the Russians to ferry American astronauts into space, and more recently it has seen its role and status diminished even further as a new paradigm takes hold. Billionaire entrepreneurs have seized the initiative and now stand on the cusp of revolutionizing the technology and economics of spaceflight. So the story goes, according to Alexander MacDonald, a historian and space policy expert who sets out to upend what he calls the conventional narrative history of American space exploration. The era of large, government-funded spaceflight programs embodied by NASA's Cold War mission, MacDonald argues, is the exception, not the rule. It did not define the Space Age. A longer historical perspective, dating back to the earliest days of the American republic, reveals that wealthy individuals—the antecedents of today's technology entrepreneurs—eagerly pursued and bankrolled the exploration of space. The recent exploits of Elon Musk and Jeffrey Bezos are not new but rather part and parcel of this broader historical trend. Three pivotal movements in American space exploration structure the book. Chapters 1 and 2 discuss the emergence and evolution of privately funded astronomical observatories from the early nineteenth century through the middle of the twentieth century. Correlating expenditures across time, MacDonald demonstrates the extent to which these early investigative efforts compared in scale and scope to NASA's programmatic initiatives during the Cold War. Chapter 3 carries the same argument forward through the experience of visionary rocket pioneer Robert Goddard. Although he tapped wealthy individuals for funds to pay for his research, Goddard also looked to the military departments for resources, a precursor to the type of public-private partnership that flourished after Sputnik. Chapter 4 explicates the waning of private-sector initiative in the face of overwhelming political will and government expansion that drove the economics of the Cold War space race. The accumulation of national prestige and status through the execution of massive, public financed projects, however, still bore some similarities to the motivations of those wealthy benefactors who had funded the observatory movement years earlier. MacDonald demonstrates the pervasiveness and resilience of institutional [End Page 484] patterns of private-sector behavior in space exploration across two centuries of American history. It is a useful exercise that broadens our understanding of the subject, but it has one significant weakness. There is no discussion or analysis of the twenty-first-century privatization of spaceflight or the leading luminaries of the movement that prompted MacDonald to write the book in the first place. The history of the Cold War space race is "overdetermined" and subject to a "cacophony" of viewpoints that obscure long-term trends, he writes (pp. 160–61), but that recent history, complex and messy as it may be, still reveals much more about current spaceflight activities than MacDonald is willing to concede. Put another way, is it necessary to take a long view of the Space Age to explain how Elon Musk, Jeffrey Bezos, and other technology entrepreneurs are giving NASA and its contractors a run for their money? MacDonald surely could highlight Musk's motivations and their connections to earlier antecedents. He has, for example, publicly proclaimed an ambitious vision for humans to leave the planet and colonize other worlds. MacDonald could also argue that Musk resembles the nineteenth-century capitalist. Like Andrew Carnegie in steel, he founded commercial enterprises that rely on inputs of capital and labor to build rockets and automobiles...

Evaluation of Commercial High Energy Lithium Primary Cells for Wide Temperature Range Aerospace Applications

As NASA missions become increasingly demanding of robust, lightweight, and compact power sources, there is a need to develop long-life and high-energy battery systems. Lithium-ion batteries have been developed at JPL over the last two decades and have been successfully integrated into a number of NASA missions [1] in conjunction with solar arrays and radioisotope thermoelectric generator (RTG) power sources. In the case of short-term missions in extremely harsh conditions (i.e., thirty days or less and/or at temperatures reaching -40 °C) without an active thermal management system, lithium primary cells may be considered for their high specific energy, especially in environments where recharging secondary cells would be challenging [2]. The icy moons of the Jovian system, for example, offer little sunlight for photovoltaic power and Jupiter’s intense magnetosphere leads to constant potentially damaging radiation.Many types of commercial lithium primary cells are available, reportedly offering high specific energies of ~500 Wh kg-1, with some designed specifically for low temperature operation. These commercial cells must be validated for space missions with extensive testing to demonstrate their performance, safety, reliability, and suitability for space environments. Radiation tolerance is also an important consideration, both as a method of sterilization for planetary protection and for survival in high radiation environments.In the present study, we have evaluated a number of commercial lithium primary cells (ranging from AA to DD+ sizes) of varying chemistries (with CFx, MnO2, SOCl2, SO2, and FeS2 cathodes) and manufacturers for possible future use in NASA’s deep space missions. We have assessed various performance characteristics of these cells, including low temperature energy, rate capability, and tolerance to radiation exposure, which will be reported here. Acknowledgement The work described herein was carried out at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, under contract with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) and supported by the NASA Space Technology Mission Directorate Game Changing Development Program.

The Use of Ester Co-Solvent Based Low Temperature Electrolytes in Experimental and Large Capacity Prototype Graphite-LiNiCoAlO2 Lithium-Ion Cells

The 2003 Mars Exploration Rover (MER) and the Mars Science Laboratory (MSL) Curiosity Rover utilize a large capacity rechargeable Li-ion batteries that have been manufactured by EaglePicher-Yardney Division (Yardney). The cell chemistry adopted for these missions consists of mesocarbon microbeads (MCMB) anodes, LiNixCo1-xO2 cathode materials, and a low temperature ternary all-carbonate-based electrolyte developed at JPL1,2,3 encased in a hermetically sealed prismatic can. The attractiveness of this system is that it displays long life, high specific energy and the ability to operate over a wide temperature range, including charging and discharging at -20oC. Due to favorable performance characteristics and the heritage established, this cell chemistry has been used on other NASA missions, including the 2007 Phoenix Lander, Grail, and the current Juno mission to Jupiter. To meet even more challenging performance requirements, including the ability to be charged and discharged at -30oC, the Mars InSight lander, which is a spacecraft being built by Lockheed Martin Space Systems Company, will utilize the next generation LiNiCoAlO2 (NCA)-based chemistry, which incorporates a JPL developed ester containing low temperature electrolyte. 4,5,6 In the context of supporting possible future missions to the distant icy moons of Jupiter and Saturn, we are currently evaluating the potential of this system to operate at very low temperatures.7 To enable the exploration of the surfaces of these icy moons, one will require power systems that can potentially operate at ultra-low temperatures (down to -180oC) in high radiation environments. To meet these challenging requirements, we are currently developing ultra-low temperature rechargeable batteries with high specific energy and long life and with the ability to operate over the temperature range of +40oC to -60oC. It is preferred that the cells are capable of continuous operation at very low temperatures, so an emphasis has been focused upon demonstrating efficient charge characteristics over a wide temperature range. In this context, we have investigated a number of electrolytes that contain methyl propionate (MP) as a co-solvent, as well as various additives, to determine their influence upon the low temperature capacity (i.e., down to -65oC). In addition to evaluating the charge and discharge characteristics over a wide temperature range in large capacity prismatic cells and prototype pouch cells, experimental graphite - LiNiCoAlO2 three-electrode lithium-ion cells were used to determine the influence of electrolyte type upon the electrode kinetics over a range of temperatures. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The work described here was carried out at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, under contract with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) and supported by the Ocean Worlds Program Office. REFERENCES 1. M.C. Smart, B.V. Ratnakumar, and S. Surampudi, “Electrolytes for Low Temperature Lithium-Ion Batteries Based on Mixtures of Aliphatic Carbonates”, J. Electrochem.Soc., 146, 486 (1999). 2. M. C. Smart, B. V. Ratnakumar, L. Whitcanack, S. Surampudi, J. Byers, and R. Marsh, IEEE Aerospace and Electronic Systems Magazine, 14: 11, 36-42 (1999). 3. M. C. Smart, B. V. Ratnakumar, L. D. Whitcanack, K. B. Chin, S. Surampudi, R. Gitzendanner, F. J. Puglia, and J. Byers, “Lithium-ion Batteries for Aerospace”, IEEE Aerospace and Electronic Systems Magazine, 19:1, 2004, pp. 18-25. 4. M.C. Smart, and B.V. Ratnakumar, L.D. Whitcanack, K.A. Smith, S. Santee, R. Gitzendanner, V. Yevoli, “Li-Ion Electrolytes Containing Ester Co-Solvents for Wide Operating Temperature Range”, ECS Trans. 11, (29) 99 (2008). 5. M. C. Smart, B. V. Ratnakumar, K. B. Chin, and L. D. Whitcanack, “Lithium-Ion Electrolytes Containing Ester Co-solvents for Improved Low Temperature Performance”, J. Electrochem. Soc., 157 (12), A1361-A1374 (2010). 6. M. C. Smart, S. F. Dawson, R. B. Shaw, L. D. Whitcanack, A. Buonanno, C. Deroy, and R. Gitzendanner, “Performance Validation of Yardney Low Temperature NCA-Based Li-ion Cells for the NASA Mars InSight Mission”, NASA Aerospace Battery Workshop, Huntsville, Alabama, November 18-20, 2014. 7. M. C. Smart, F. C. Krause, J. –P. Jones, L. D. Whitcanack, B. V. Ratnakumar, and E. J. Brandon, “The Use of Low Temperature Electrolytes in High Specific Energy Li-Ion Cells for Future NASA Missions to Icy Moons”, 229th Meeting of the Electrochemical Society, San Diego, May 29-June 2, 2016.

The Use of Low Temperature Electrolytes in High Specific Energy Li-Ion Cells for Future NASA Missions to Icy Moons

NASA has a strong interest to explore some of the distant icy moons of Jupiter and Saturn, since these bodies are believed to have liquid oceans beneath the icy surface that may harbor life. More specifically, NASA is considering missions to Europa, one of Jupiter’s moons, as well as other icy moons of Jupiter and Saturn, such as Enceladus, Ganymede, Titan and Callisto. To enable surface exploration of these icy moons using landers and rovers, the power systems will need to be mass and volume efficient and potentially operate at ultra-low temperatures (down to -180oC) and in high radiation environments (> 5 Mrad). To meet these power requirements, a number of power system technology options are available, including: (i) primary batteries, (ii) solar photovoltaic (PV) power sources coupled with rechargeable batteries, (iii) radioisotope thermoelectric generators (RTG) coupled with rechargeable batteries, and (v) fuel cells. Of these options, the use of PV solar arrays combined with rechargeable batteries is potentially attractive, since it will enable long duration missions and have low mass. To address these mission needs, improved rechargeable batteries that can operate at very low temperatures are desired. In response, the Electrochemical Technologies Group (ETG) at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) is involved in developing ultra-low temperature rechargeable batteries with high specific energy and long life capability for icy moon surface missions. The performance goal is that these batteries should operate over the temperature range of +40oC to -60oC (delivering up to 100 Wh/kg at -40oC and 75 Wh/kg at -60oC). In addition, it is desirable that continuous operation is possible at these very low temperatures, so the cells should possess good charge characteristics over a wide temperature range. To meet these goals, we are currently evaluating both all carbonate and ester containing low temperature electrolytes that have been incorporated into prototype cells of various chemistries, obtained from a number of vendors, including (i) Eagle Pitcher Technologies-Yardney Division, (ii) Enersys/Quallion, LLC, (iii) E-One Moli Energy Ltd., and (iv) Navitas/A123. These electrolytes have been developed under previous programs, targeting improved low temperature operation of Li-ion cells, for both aerospace and automotive applications. In the case of the Eagle Picher Technologies-Yardney Division Li-ion cells, we are evaluating large capacity prototype cells developed for Mars Science Laboratory (MSL) Curiosity rover and the Mars InSight lander that contain an all-carbonate low temperature electrolyte 1 and a methyl propionate (MP) containing electrolyte 2 , respectively. 3 In collaboration with Quallion, we have obtained MCMB-LiNiCoAlO2-based prototype cells containing both carbonate- and ester-based electrolytes. Previous collaborative efforts with Quallion have demonstrated high power capability over a wide range of temperatures in these cells, in support of a DoE program focused on automotive applications. 4 We are also evaluating LiFePO4-based prototype cells that were obtained from Navitas/A123 with both methyl butyrate (MB) and methyl propionate (MP)-based electrolytes that have been demonstrated to operate well over a wide temperature range (i.e., -60o to +60oC). 5 In collaboration with E-One Moli, we are also engaged in evaluating 18650 Li-ion cells that possess methyl propionate-based electrolytes, which have been observed to provide excellent specific energy down to very low temperatures. 6 During the course of this study, we have investigated the impact of the electrolyte type upon the low temperature capability of the different chemistries, with an emphasis upon obtaining high specific energy under relevant conditions. This involves performing charge and discharge rate characterization over a wide temperature range, as well as cycling continuously at very low temperatures. Furthermore, there is a desire to characterize the likelihood of lithium plating when charging at low temperatures, and the influence that the electrolyte type and additives have upon this behavior. To augment the prototype cell testing, studies were also performed in experimental three-electrode lithium-ion cells to determine the influence that the electrolyte type has upon the electrode kinetics, consisting of MCMB carbon anode and LiNiCoAlO2 cathodes (electrodes fabricated by Quallion, LLC). A number of electrochemical techniques were employed to study these cells, including Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy, Tafel polarization, and linear micro-polarization. In summary, good reversibility and high specific energy has been obtained at -40oC with many of the systems, and operating capability has been demonstrated to temperatures as low as -70oC. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The work described here was carried out at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, under contract with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) and supported by the Ocean Worlds Program Office.

Outcome-driven open innovation at NASA

In an increasingly connected and networked world, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) recognizes the value of the public as a strategic partner in addressing some of our most pressing challenges. The agency is working to more effectively harness the expertise, ingenuity, and creativity of individual members of the public by enabling, accelerating, and scaling the use of open innovation approaches including prizes, challenges, and crowdsourcing. As NASA's use of open innovation tools to solve a variety of types of problems and advance of number of outcomes continues to grow, challenge design is also becoming more sophisticated as our expertise and capacity (personnel, platforms, and partners) grows and develops. NASA has recently pivoted from talking about the benefits of challenge-driven approaches, to the outcomes these types of activities yield. Challenge design should be informed by desired outcomes that align with NASA's mission. This paper provides several case studies of NASA open innovation activities and maps the outcomes of those activities to a successful set of outcomes that challenges can help drive alongside traditional tools such as contracts, grants and partnerships.

Status of Regenerative Fuel Cell Membrane Electrode Assembly Development for Space-Based Energy Storage

Introduction The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) has led a thrust for the development of advanced regenerative fuel cell systems (RFCs) to be used as energy storage for space-based robotics, mobility systems, and human habitats. The goal of the program has been to develop an RFC system capable of a round trip efficiency of 64%. The focus at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) in RFC research has been in developing proton exchange membrane electrode assemblies (MEAs) for both the fuel cell and the electrolyzer subsystems [1-3]. In a RFC system, energy storage is achieved via the electrolysis of water to hydrogen and oxygen gases during the charge phase. Consumption of the hydrogen and oxygen gases then occurs during the discharge phase, with the subsequent generation of water. For space applications, the energy for the electrolysis of water will be supplied via solar or nuclear power. The power delivered during the discharge of the RFC system can be used by robots, mobility systems, and human habitats operating on the moon, near-Earth asteroids or Mars. Such a system could also be used for load balancing in both space and terrestrial applications. This paper will discuss fuel cell MEAs that have been developed for a future NASA regenerative fuel cell system. RFC system trades and NASA mission concepts that will feature RFC-based energy storage systems will also be discussed. Results and Discussion The current-voltage polarization of two MEAs are shown in Figure 1. To achieve high voltage efficiencies, the MEAs will be expected to operate at current densities in the range of 200 to 600 mA/cm2. TheMEA will operate with reactants at a balance pressure of 30 PSIG at 70 oC. The NASA-JPL developed MEA isdesigned to operate in a non-flow-through stack. The MEA current-voltage polarization reported are for MEAs that operate with a reactant feed rate of approximately 3x stoic. As shown in Figure 1, the polarization for the NASA-JPL MEA is reported to be 0.92, 0.86 and 0.81 Volts at an applied current density of 200, 600 and 1000 mA/cm2, respectively. The polarization of the NASAJPLMEA is approximately 80 mV greater than the commercially available MEA at a current density of 200 mA/cm2. The voltage efficiency for the JPL-NASA MEAat 200 and 600 mA/cm2 is approximately 75 and 70%,respectively. To achieve the desired RFC system efficiency, the fuel cell MEA will need to operate at approximately 73% voltage efficiency. It is envisioned that MEA operation at current densities above 1 A/cm2 would be for short periods (< 1 hour) for NASA applications. The short-term durability studies for the NASAJPL MEA is shown as Figure 2. The MEA operated at an applied current density of 200 mA/cm2, 70 oC, and 30PSIG balanced reactants during the durability studies. The initial voltage for the MEA is reported to be greater than 0.92 Volts, the voltage drops to 0.91 Volts after 13 hours of operation. The initial voltage is recoverable after current cycling as shown at 243 hours of operation. The cell degradation is reported to be approximately 7 μVolts after more than 1000 hours of operation. The degradation is, in part, attributed to test hardware. The minimum MEA voltage efficiency is approximately 73% for the duration of the test. Future work will investigate the integration of the NASA-JPL MEA in NASA RFC hardware. Acknowledgements The work presented here was carried out at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology for the National Aeronautics and Space Administration.