National Adaptation Programmes Research Articles

Issues of Climate Change in Nepal

This study discusses the multifaceted impacts of climate change on Nepal's environment, economy, and society. It highlights the country's vulnerability to climate-related challenges such as erratic weather patterns, glacial melting, and the resulting socio-economic consequences for its population. The document also outlines Nepal's efforts to address these challenges through policy frameworks like the National Climate Change Policy and the National Adaptation Programme of Action (NAPA). Additionally, it emphasizes the importance of international cooperation, community-based adaptation initiatives, and the promotion of renewable energy as key strategies to build resilienceand mitigate the adverse effects of climate change in Nepal. The paper serves as a comprehensive resource for understanding the complexities of climate change in Nepal and the various measures being implemented to safeguard the country's future. It provides valuable insights for policymakers, researchers, and development practitioners involved in climate action, emphasizing the need for a coordinated and multi-faceted approach to address the evolving impacts of climate change.

Towards Climate-Resilient WASH Services: A Critical Evaluation of Bangladesh’s Policy Landscape

Water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) services are fundamental to public health and well-being, yet they face significant challenges due to climate change. In Bangladesh, these challenges are compounded by the country’s geographic vulnerability to climate-related hazards such as floods, cyclones, and sea-level rise. Bangladesh’s flat, low-lying topography, high population density, and reliance on agriculture exacerbate its susceptibility to climate-induced disasters, threatening vital sectors including water resources and infrastructure. Integrating climate resilience into WASH strategies is crucial for mitigating these impacts and ensuring sustainable development. This paper reviews national policies and strategies aimed at enhancing climate resilience in the WASH sector in Bangladesh, highlighting successful initiatives and identifying areas where further integration is necessary. The analysis reveals that Bangladesh has developed comprehensive policy frameworks, such as the Bangladesh Climate Change Strategy and Action Plan (BCCSAP) and the National Adaptation Programme of Action (NAPA), which emphasize community-based adaptation and prioritize vulnerable populations. Despite these efforts, significant gaps exist in policy implementation, particularly concerning the alignment of financial resources with strategic objectives. The Bangladesh Climate Change Trust Fund (BCCTF) has yet to fund specific WASH-related projects, highlighting a disconnect between policy intentions and practical outcomes. Institutional coordination challenges persist, with inadequate communication among government agencies responsible for WASH and climate change. However, several successful initiatives demonstrate effective integration of climate resilience into WASH services. These include UNICEF’s climate-resilient sanitation programme, which has improved access to sanitation in flood-prone areas, and community-driven approaches that leverage local knowledge and traditional practices to enhance resilience. The study employs a qualitative research approach, systematically reviewing national policy documents, strategic plans, and relevant literature. The analytical framework evaluates policy coherence, integration of climate resilience, implementation mechanisms, and stakeholder engagement. Evaluation criteria include comprehensiveness, specificity, adaptability, and effectiveness of policies in addressing climate change impacts on WASH services. Key challenges identified include policy and financing disconnects, inadequate recognition of vulnerable areas, lack of updated policies, governance and implementation gaps, over-reliance on technological solutions, and the need for localized research and data. Addressing these challenges requires a multifaceted approach that includes updating policies, enhancing governance structures, ensuring adequate financing, promoting community engagement, and conducting localized research.

Usable, but unused: A critical story of co-producing the UK’s Climate Change Risk Assessments

Non-use of climate information is often attributed to scientists failing to understand what decision-makers need. In response, co-production offers one promising method to improve the usability, and therein, use of climate information. Yet it remains unclear to what extent usability and use are linked, or if other factors influence the non-use of climate information. This paper critically examines two efforts to co-produce climate information for UK adaptation decision-making: the first and second cycles of the climate change risk assessment to gather evidence and then inform the national adaptation programme. To do this, a mixed methods approach was used: (i) textual analysis of official Government documents, and (ii) in-depth interviews with key actors. Our research found that the institutional-political context in which climate information is produced and used, played a significant role in defining who the user should be, how the data analysis was performed, and the extent to which that information was used. Just because something is co-produced does not mean it will be usable, nor does something that’s usable automatically mean it will be used. Unless new research seeks to better understand how the modes of production (linear vs. co-production) influence the use of climate information, who uses it, and how it’s used, questions will remain over whether the right barriers to climate inaction have been tackled.

The Climate Science for Ecological Forecasting symposium

The Climate Science for Ecological Forecasting symposium

Climate variability and extractivism exposures: Understanding household perspectives on livelihood resilience in rural Ghana

The resilience of African rural livelihoods is at risk due to over-reliance on rain-fed agriculture, which increasingly suffers from climate variability. Extractive communities are exposed to changes from extractivism and climate conditions. The double exposure framework is employed to contextualise factors influencing households’ perspectives on the overlapping impacts of these change processes on livelihoods. The results affirm a general awareness that both climate variability and extractivism affect rural livelihoods. In addition, contextual factors such as gender, cultural connections, education, type of occupation, agroecological and resource extractivism types significantly influence households’ perception of climate variability and extractivism effects on livelihoods. Example, large size households located in the deciduous forest zones are more likely to perceive that their livelihoods are double exposed to climatic variability and extractivism effects. Communities affected by mineral/forestry extractivism are more likely to perceive double exposure of climatic variability and extractivism effects on their livelihood sources. Households expect the national government and extractive companies to provide alternative livelihoods and improve infrastructure to enhance their resilience. The study shows that differential factors underpin the perceived risk of rural livelihoods exposure to climate change and extractivism, thus supporting the need for policy-makers to include mining landscapes in national adaptation programs.

Farmer extension facilitators as a pathway for climate smart agriculture: evidence from southern Malawi

ABSTRACT Climate smart agriculture (CSA) is increasingly vital for enhancing agricultural adaptation to extreme weather shocks and sequestering carbon in the face of climate change. However, CSA adoption remains low in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) and other developing regions due to resource constraints and weak agricultural extension systems, among other factors. To reverse this trend and increase CSA adoption, the use of participatory extension services like farmer extension facilitators (FEFs) are increasingly viewed as a pathway to improving extension services in rural communities in SSA and elsewhere. Yet, rigorous analyses of the impacts of the FEF approach as a pathway for CSA adoption remain limited. Here we estimate the impacts of the FEF approach on CSA adoption in terms of resource intensity of CSA practices promoted by FEFs through a large CSA-related intervention in southern Malawi. We apply recursive bivariate probit regression to primary survey data from a sample of 808 households across five districts in the project area across southern Malawi in 2016, accounting for endogeneity and selection bias in farmer interaction with FEFs and the impact of the FEF approach on CSA adoption. Results show that interaction with FEFs had a positive and statistically-significant impact on CSA adoption; low, medium, and high resource intensity CSA categories increased by 42%, 87%, and 96%, respectively. The results suggest that the FEF approach can significantly enhance CSA adoption and thereby contribute to the achievement of the Sustainable Development Goals, including climate action in Malawi, similar contexts in SSA, and elsewhere. Key Policy Insights Participatory extension systems like the FEF approach can improve agricultural extension services in poor communities and thereby enhance CSA adoption in such areas. Smallholder farmer interaction with FEFs can enhance their adoption of resource-intensive CSA practices. Mainstreaming the FEF approach into national adaptation policies and programmes can help scale up CSA adoption in dryland communities. The FEF approach can enhance an achievement of the Sustainable Development Goals, including climate action in dryland developing countries.

Climate Change and Poverty Reduction Strategies: Challenges and Lessons from Tanzania

There is no doubt that climate change has significantly impeded poverty reduction and development efforts in many countries. Recent climate-related catastrophes have caused significant damages to developing countries and their citizens. This article analyses the nexus between climate change mitigation and its impact on Tanzania’s poverty reduction strategies. With the government’s decision to abandon poverty reduction strategies in 2011, it is vital to understand how these issues are mainstreamed in national plans. Drawing on extensive literature of secondary sources and official publications, the article demonstrates that, notwithstanding many promising features of the new national development plan, Tanzania has performed poorly within the overarching notion of mainstreaming climate change in its various national development plans. Findings further show that despite all these efforts made in previous climate change and poverty reduction strategies, Tanzania is still ill-prepared to face future climate change challenges. The article concludes that climate change issues are real and have already caused a significant setback to agricultural production and other productive sectors, posing a serious threat to human and food security. It recommends reconsidering mainstreaming climate change in development plans, adequate budgetary allocation, and establishing an effective National Adaptation Programme of Action (NAPA) to coordinate climate-risk information at national and local levels.

Climate change and the activities of botanical gardens

Problems and prospects of botanical gardens in a changing climate are discussed in the article. An increase in the average annual surface air temperature, changes in seasonal indicators and the length of the growing season require action from botanical gardens. Decisions on the management of natural and man-made ecosystems, with the aim of their conservation and sustainable development, must be taken taking into account the ecological situation. The knowledge and experience concentrated in botanical gardens makes it possible to assess the threats and opportunities for climate change and develop adaptation measures to them. All activities of botanical gardens should be aimed at counteracting climate change, include preventive measures based on the expected plant responses and compensatory measures. Research work in all areas should take into account the situation with changing climatic parameters. Special attention should be paid to endemic rare and endangered species, historical landscapes, and changes in the assortment of resistant species, cultivation technologies, and biological invasions. Botanical gardens must be proactive by providing information, plant materials and technologies for national and global climate change adaptation programs.

Smallholder farmers' perceptions and adaptation strategies to mitigate the effect of climate change in the oases of South-Eastern Tunisia

Climate change is expected to have serious environmental, economic, and social impacts on arid regions such as Tunisia country. This research uses a “bottom-up” approach, which seeks to gain insights from the farmers themselves based on a farm household in the south-east of Tunisia. Econometric analyses and Main Component analysis was conducted in this research. Finally, probit binary models were estimated to determine the factors influencing adaptation strategies. All actions aimed at improving the resilience of agriculture in Tunisia’s arid regions to climate change, emphasize mainly the strategies adopted by farmers in terms of water management, technical choices and the adopted production systems combined with the experience and local know-how. Others Government policies and national adaptation programs should focus on education facilitate farmers’ access to extension, information and specialized training needed.

Adaptation to Climate Change: Status, Household Strategies and Challenges in Lesotho

Rural livelihoods across Lesotho have been markedly impacted by climate change, as they are largely agriculture dependent (80%). Adaptation to the events of climate variability especially in agriculturally dependent communities is of importance. In drier districts given the fact that agriculture is the most affected sector, the (Lesotho) state adopted several strategies and measures for climate change adaptation to improve rural livelihoods. To get an overview of adaptation, the study reviewed the National Adaptation Programme Actions (NAPA), Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) and the National Policy on Climate Change (NPCC) as the instruments specific to adaptation to climate change. A case study of Mafeteng district, an area subjected to persistent drought events was selected to examine adaptation strategies employed. Two prominent strategies highlighted in the study are conservation agriculture and keyhole gardening. Furthermore, a top down approach is found to exist in terms of adaptation planning, not only that but adaptation action is more focused on capacity building of technocrats whilst households are struggling to adapt at grassroots level. Secondly, research is limited to national assessments leading to nonspecific interventions and last adaptation projects are largely donor funded lacking sustainability in turn. This therefore warrants integrated planning and an interdependent stakeholder approach is proposed as a way forward.

Synergies between Climate Policies and the Sustainable Development Goals in Haiti

Addressing climate change is an important priority area for Haiti as evidenced by Haiti’s Nationally Determined Contribution of 2015, the National Climate Change Policy of 2016 and the National Adaptation Plan of Action updated in 2017, but it is not Haiti’s only development priority. Balancing many different national priorities can be challenging, and so identifying areas of synergy, where more than one goal can be met at the same time, can help Haiti to achieve its climate goals and other development goals at the same time. One way to identify connections between climate priorities and other priorities is through the Sustainable Development Goals. The goal of this analysis was to identify how Haiti’s climate priorities align with the SDGs, synergies between achieving climate priorities and the SDGs, and any gaps in terms of SDGs that are not addressed in Haiti’s climate policies. We identified climate priorities and actions as articulated in Haiti’s three major climate policies: Nationally Determined Contribution to the Paris Agreement, the National Climate Change Policy, and the National Adaptation Programme of Action. These policies included 99 adaptation actions, 19 mitigation actions, and 12 cross-cutting actions. The SDGs are not explicitly mentioned in any of Haiti’s climate policies, but there are many areas of synergy that can be found between Haiti’s climate policies and the SDGs and the analysis found that there are many opportunities for Haiti to achieve its targets for the SDGs and its climate goals at the same time. The most common connections were with SDG 15: Life on Land (9 priorities). Other common connections were with SDG 2: No Hunger (4 priorities) and SDG 7: Affordable and Clean Energy (3 priorities). The fisheries and coastal zone, agriculture and food security, health, water resources, health, energy, and human establishments and culture sectors had particularly strong connections. A strong case can be made that investments in climate action will help to achieve many of the SDGs, as investing in climate action also means investing directly in the implementation of many SDGs.

An Analysis of Water Policies and Strategies of Bangladesh in the Context of Climate Change

Water sector is crucial to sustainable development. It sustains the natural resources, livelihood of the people and facilitates to operate economic activities of the country. Currently, the water sector of Bangladesh is under severe threats particularly due to impacts of climate change. The Fourth Assessment Report of International Panel on climate change confirms that the water sector will be one of the most vulnerable sectors to climate change. Climate change impacts are being manifested in the form of extreme climatic events and sea-level rise followed by salinity intrusion into the groundwater and wetlands. The Government of Bangladesh has formulated policies to address the climate-induced water vulnerabilities. However, the existing policies are heavily leaned towards strategising adaptation options to address short-run climate-induced water vulnerabilities. Implementation of long-term approaches to combating climate change require laying groundwork which include extensive research on determining the future impacts of climate change on water resources. The article aims to assess some of the major policies, including National Water Policy, Bangladesh Climate Change Strategy and Action Plan, National Strategy for Water Sanitation and Hygiene, The National Sustainable Development Strategy, National Adaptation Programme of Action and Bangladesh Delta Plan 2100, through the lens of climate change to determine that up to what extent these policies have addressed the climate-induced water vulnerabilities. The article has recommended to emphasise on conducting a comprehensive research with proper institutional setup on the long-run impacts of climate change on water resources and undertake subsequent water adaptation strategies to address the water-related problems.

Mainstreaming climate change adaptation into sectoral policies in Nepal: A review

Nepalese people have experienced climate variability for a long time and the mitigation and adaptation responses they have made to reduce the effect of climate variability are not new phenomena for Nepal. However, mainstreaming climate change issues into sectoral policies from the government can be seen as recent activities in Nepal. Nepal has contributed negligible amount of emissions of Greenhouse Gases (GHGs) of global greenhouse gas, it is the fourth most vulnerable country in the world. In this context, this paper aims to review climate change adaptation policies in terms of sectoral integration. This paper has adopted text-mining method for information retrieval and knowledge mining and followed step-by-step approach to undertake review of policies. It concludes that National Adaptation Programme of Action (NAPA) in 2010 can be a milestone in sectoral adaptation of climate change issue largely because it has provided the national framework for sectoral adaptation to climate change. However, NAPA ignores the importance of structural and institutional reforms needed for mainstreaming climate change adaptation into sectoral agencies. Climate change Policy, 2011, Local Adaptation Plan of Action (LAPA) 2011, Constitution of Nepal, 2015, Local Government Operation Act (LGOA) 2017, Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Act, 2017 and National REDD+ Strategy, 2018 are other prominent legislative and policy frameworks that have significant contribution in sectoral integration of climate change adaptation issues. However, lack of climate change act in order to implement fully these policies into practice for its implementation can be a major obstacle to achieve the goal. In this context, strong legislative foundation with effective institutional mechanism among different sectors will be very crucial to capture the spirit of new Federal Constitution of Nepal.

Turning risk assessment and adaptation policy priorities into meaningful interventions and governance processes.

The UK is one of the first countries in the world to have set up a statutory system of national climate risk assessments followed by a national adaptation programme. Having this legal framework has been essential for enabling adaptation at the government level in a challenging political environment. However, using this framework to create an improvement in resilience to climate change across the country requires more than publishing a set of documents; it requires careful thought about what interventions work, how they can be enabled and what level of risk acceptability individuals, organizations and the country should be aiming for.This article is part of the theme issue 'Advances in risk assessment for climate change adaptation policy'.

Policy Coherence and Interplay between Climate Change Adaptation Policies and the Forestry Sector in Nepal.

Least Developed Countries are likely to be hit the hardest by climate change and need focused efforts towards adaptation. Nepal recognizes that it needs to integrate climate change adaptation into various policies, but limited understanding of how to make these policies coherent is among the factors that hinder effective adaptation action. This can lead to wasted resources and lost opportunities. This paper applies concepts from policy coherence for development frameworks and policy content analysis to examine coherence in Nepal's climate and forest policies-and discusses the factors hindering effective implementation. The policies are analyzed at the horizontal/external level at three layers-motivation, measures, and planned implementation process. The paper finds that policies are more consistent on motivation level and adaptation measures, but are less coherent on implementation. The National Adaptation Programme of Action (NAPA) is more explicit in identifying institutions, organizations, roles and responsibilities, resource allocation (financial), and a monitoring and evaluation plan for climate change adaptation while other policies such as Climate Change Policy 2011, National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan 2014-2020, Forest Policy 2015, and Forest Sector Strategy 2016 have critical gaps in this area. This paper conclude that formulation of a policy, articulating targets, and mobilizing financial resources are in themselves not sufficient to effectively address climate change adaptation. Policy-based legislation is required, together with development of a supportive collaborative multi-stakeholder approach at different levels of governance, backed up by effective, collaborative monitoring and enforcement.

Ecosystem services in adaptation projects in West Africa

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to assess the extent to which adaptation projects have incorporated ecosystem services, as well as their redesigning options. The projects selected are listed under National Adaptation Programme of Action in West African region.Design/methodology/approachA desktop survey approach was used to review 168 projects from 13 countries across West Africa. The projects were categorized and analyzed according to their adaptation goal, thematic focus, their implementation duration and level of investment.FindingsThe adaptation initiatives are dominated by actions in the agricultural sector accounting for 32 per cent of the total. Further, they were characterized by small grants consideration with 63 per cent falling under US$1m budget, short-term implementation duration with 46 per cent having three years’ execution period. A large portion of projects (55 per cent) mentioned directly one or more ecosystem services, with provisioning services being referred to in 50 per cent of the cases.Originality/valueAdaptation projects with ecosystem services components are more sustainable and beneficial to the community. Hence, more consideration of nature benefits during project design, more financial consideration and localizing of the projects to realize the global adaptation goal should be considered.

Mainstreaming national adaptation programmes of action into national development plans in Lesotho

PurposeThe concept of National Adaptation Programme of Action (NAPA) is advocated at international, regional and national levels. The concept is thought to foster sustainability of livelihoods against impacts of climate change. This paper analyses the mainstreaming of NAPA into national development plans in Lesotho as accentuated by policies and programmes.Design/methodology/approachThe analysis is broadly qualitative and reviews policies and projects on agriculture and food security, environment, forestry, water and irrigation aimed at sustaining rural livelihoods. Data from relevant government documents, commissioned studies’ reports, literature and key stakeholders are used.FindingsAlthough the mainstreaming entry point for NAPA is identified in the country’s Vision 2020 and National Strategic Development Plan (NSDP) 2012/13-2016/17, financial, technical, human and other resources are inadequate to ensure its effective implementation. There is little evidence of NAPA mainstreaming into development plans by the line ministries of finance and economic development other than donor-funded projects. Absence of climate change policy influence means NAPA is not well-factored into the national development agenda, as mainstreaming is difficult without appropriate policies. Most projects with effect on climate change impact abatement originate from specific sectors and are disconnected from each other.Originality/valueBased on the findings, ways to leverage NAPA via mainstreaming are discussed. It is concluded that NAPA mainstreaming offers a promising avenue for initiating and promoting sustainable livelihoods in Lesotho. The study demonstrates the applicability of the presented sustainable livelihood framework.

Socio-economic factors influencing household dependence on forests and its implication for forest-based climate change interventions

In most African countries, forest-based climate change intervention initiatives such as nationally appropriate mitigation actions (NAMAs) and national adaptation programmes of action (NAPAs) are widely accepted. This is mainly due to the fact that they are relevant in addressing multiple challenges associated with rural development, mitigation and adaptation to climate change, and sustainable forest management. However, there are concerns about the implications of strategic and practical steps taken in this context on forest-dependent communities. Thus, there is need to reconcile local socio-economic vulnerabilities and forest-based climate change intervention initiatives. In the current study, socio-economic factors influencing households’ dependence on forest resources and associated implications on climate change interventions were investigated. Proportionate stratified random sampling was used to select 366 households from forest-based rural communities in Vhembe District of South Africa. A structured questionnaire was administered to household heads in 21 villages. The Pearson’s chi-square test was used to analyse the factors that influence household dependence on forest. The effects of household socio-economic characteristics on households’ forest dependence influencing factor were determined using the binary logit model. Up to 97% of the respondents depended on the forest resources predominantly because of low costs associated with using them. It was observed that socio-economic characteristics of households such as farm husbandry skills, years of residence (53–65) in the community and age of respondents (≤38–65) significantly (P < 0.05) influenced use of the forest resources. Thus, effectiveness and sustainability of forest-based climate change intervention initiatives can be promoted if the socio-economic conditions prevailing within households in areas next to forests are improved.

Health-sector responses to address the impacts of climate change in Nepal.

Nepal is highly vulnerable to global climate change, despite its negligible emission of global greenhouse gases. The vulnerable climate-sensitive sectors identified in Nepal's National Adaptation Programme of Action (NAPA) to Climate Change 2010 include agriculture, forestry, water, energy, public health, urbanization and infrastructure, and climate-induced disasters. In addition, analyses carried out as part of the NAPA process have indicated that the impacts of climate change in Nepal are not gender neutral. Vector-borne diseases, diarrhoeal diseases including cholera, malnutrition, cardiorespiratory diseases, psychological stress, and health effects and injuries related to extreme weather are major climate-sensitive health risks in the country. In recent years, research has been done in Nepal in order to understand the changing epidemiology of diseases and generate evidence for decision-making. Based on this evidence, the experience of programme managers, and regular surveillance data, the Government of Nepal has mainstreamed issues related to climate change in development plans, policies and programmes. In particular, the Government of Nepal has addressed climate-sensitive health risks. In addition to the NAPA report, several policy documents have been launched, including the Climate Change Policy 2011; the Nepal Health Sector Programme - Implementation Plan II (NHSP-IP 2) 2010-2015; the National Health Policy 2014; the National Health Sector Strategy 2015-2020 and its implementation plan (2016-2021); and the Health National Adaptation Plan (H-NAP): climate change and health strategy and action plan (2016-2020). However, the translation of these policies and plans of action into tangible action on the ground is still in its infancy in Nepal. Despite this, the health sector's response to addressing the impact of climate change in Nepal may be taken as a good example for other low- and middle-income countries.

Mainstreaming biodiversity and wildlife management into climate change policy frameworks in selected east and southern African countries.

The Rio+20 outcomes document, the Future We Want, enshrines green economy as one of the platforms to attain sustainable development and calls for measures that seek to address climate change and biodiversity management. This paper audits climate change policies from selected east and southern African countries to determine the extent to which climate change legislation mainstreams biodiversity and wildlife management. A scan of international, continental, regional and national climate change policies was conducted to assess whether they include biodiversity and/or wildlife management issues. The key finding is that many climate change policy–related documents, particularly the National Adaptation Programme of Actions (NAPAs), address threats to biodiversity and wildlife resources. However, international policies like the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and Kyoto Protocol do not address the matter under deliberation. Regional climate change policies such as the East African Community, Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa and African Union address biodiversity and/or wildlife issues whilst the Southern African Development Community region does not have a stand-alone policy for climate change. Progressive countries like Rwanda, Uganda, Tanzania and Zambia have recently put in place detailed NAPAs which are mainstream responsive strategies intended to address climate change adaptation in the wildlife sector.